English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Level 2 is designed for learners who need to consolidate and refine their Standard Australian English (SAE) language skills for effective communication in a range of contexts
Standard Australian English (SAE) is the variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the 'common language' of Australians. There is a focus on language learning and the explicit teaching of the structure, linguistic features and sociolinguistic and sociocultural aspects of Standard Australian English (SAE). Through close study of language and meaning, learners of EAL/D explore how learning in and through English language and literature influences their own and others' personal, social and cultural identities and thought processes. They develop skills that enable them to use different registers of spoken and written SAE so they can communicate effectively in a range of contexts and for a variety of purposes in order to become effective cross-cultural users of language and dialect.EAL/D provides opportunities for learners to engage reflectively and critically with a broad range of spoken, written and multimodal texts (including literary and non-literary texts, for example academic, everyday and workplace texts). Students learn to create (individually and collaboratively) increasingly complex texts for different purposes and audiences in different forms, modes and mediums.Learners may be recent arrivals to Australia, refugees, or other learners for whom English is a second or additional language or dialect. Learners may need to develop their research skills and may intend on further academic study.
This course is designed to develop communication skills in, and use of SAE, for learners who have grasped the fundamentals and need to advance their skill level.
There is a focus on comprehension of oral, written and multimodal SAE texts to gain meaning, and the use of these texts to formulate a response.
Learners are required to use basic language features and text structures, and create original texts using SAE in a range of modes.
English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Level 2 is designed for learners who need to consolidate and refine their Standard Australian English (SAE) language skills for effective communication in a range of contexts. Standard Australian English (SAE) is the variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the ‘common language’ of Australians.
There is a focus on language learning and the explicit teaching of the structure, linguistic features and sociolinguistic and sociocultural aspects of Standard Australian English (SAE). Through close study of language and meaning, learners of EAL/D explore how learning in and through English language and literature influences their own and others’ personal, social and cultural identities and thought processes. They develop skills that enable them to use different registers of spoken and written SAE so they can communicate effectively in a range of contexts and for a variety of purposes in order to become effective cross-cultural users of language and dialect.
EAL/D provides opportunities for learners to engage reflectively and critically with a broad range of spoken, written and multimodal texts (including literary and non-literary texts, for example academic, everyday and workplace texts.) Students learn to create (individually and collaboratively) increasingly complex texts for different purposes and audiences in different forms, modes and mediums.
Learners may be recent arrivals to Australia, refugees, or other learners for whom English is a second or additional language or dialect. Learners may need to develop their research skills and may intend on further academic study.
Senior secondary English courses aim to develop learners’:
In addition, English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) aims to develop learners’:
On successful completion of this course, learners will:
Access to this course is restricted to learners:
Providers may make an application to TASC requesting a partial relaxation of the restrictions noted above, on an individual learner basis. Possible grounds for an application would be to cater for a learner who: has experienced severely interrupted schooling; has experienced trauma or other forms of memory impairment due to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (for example); or who is a humanitarian refugee and for whom this course is the most appropriate and beneficial. Click for more information and an Application Form.
This course requires learners to work in small groups.
Successful completion of this course may lead to a variety of senior secondary courses and vocational education and training qualifications.
This course serves as a foundation course for learners continuing to English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D)Level 3.
This course has a complexity level of 2.
At Level 2, the learner is expected to carry out tasks and activities that involve a range of knowledge and skills, including some basic theoretical and/or technical knowledge and skills. Limited judgement is required, such as making an appropriate selection from a range of given rules, guidelines or procedures. VET competencies at this level are often those characteristic of an AQF Certificate II.
This course has a size value of 15.
This course is in four (4) compulsory strands.
Strand A: Communication Skills and Strategies
Strand B: Comprehension Skills and Strategies
Strand C: Language and Text Analysis Skills and Strategies
Strand D: Create a Range of Texts
Within each strand learners engage in compulsory learning elements.
These compulsory learning elements are indicated as dot points under each strand in the Course Content below.
Illustrative examples of learning tasks and/or explanatory notes are also given with each learning element. See also the Glossary Appendix.
It is not intended that the four strands and related learning elements are delivered and assessed in isolation. Providers will design integrated programs of study that concurrently deliver and assess the four strands and their learning elements.
In designing integrated programs of study providers will contextualise learning by adopting a theme or issues/topic based approach, selected on the basis of learner needs and interests. It is recommended that they are expressed as inquiry questions. At least three (3) themes/issues/topics will be used to contextualise learning in this course. Illustrative examples include, but are not limited to:
Course content in italics has been included to give illustrative examples, explanations and other additional information to assist the provider.
STRAND A: COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND STRATEGIES
Learners will:
Connotation: a secondary meaning in addition to its explicit or primary meaning; a suggestive meaning; an association apart from its literal meaning; an undertone or implication
An example of a formal purpose and audience may be a discussion with the Principal.
An example of an informal purpose and audience may be writing to family and friends.
STRAND B: COMPREHENSION SKILLS AND STRATEGIES
Learners will:
* Context is the environment in which a text is responded to or created. Context can include the general social, historical and cultural conditions in which a text is responded to and created (cultural context) or the specific features of its immediate environment (situational context).
* Cultural references may include those referring to values, attitudes and beliefs. They may refer to people, places and events that signify cultural group, e.g. “elders”. They may be aesthetic or spiritual in nature. They may have an artistic connection, e.g. music, art, artefacts, sites of significance, architecture, clothing/national dress, family hierarchies. Cultural references may also refer to specific culturally based events and activities such as: NAIDOC Week; National Sorry Day; Harmony Day; other National recognition days and events.
Example 1: locate and synthesise information about the Australian flag from a book and from the internet
Example 2: locate and synthesise information about how to cook a barbecue for a family gathering from a video or CD ROM, and from a guest speaker
STRAND C: LANGUAGE AND TEXT ANALYSIS SKILLS AND STRATEGIES
Learners will:
STRAND D: CREATING A RANGE OF TEXTS
Learners will:
*Multimodal: a combination of two or more communication modes (for example print, image, and spoken text, as in a film or computer presentation)
Illustrative examples of multimodal texts include, but are not limited to:
Medium: the resources used in the production of texts, including the tools and materials used (for example, digital text and the computer, or writing with pen and paper)
These are minimum work requirements.
Listening to, reading and viewing texts:
Learners will listen to, read and view a wide range of texts including:
The learner will listen to:
The learner will read:
The learner will view:
Learner-created texts
The learner will create and deliver:
* At least one of these oral presentations will be delivered individually. The other may be presented as part of a group presentation or interaction.
The learner will create written texts using both handwritten and digital (e.g. word processor) mediums. The learner will write:
Each substantial written text will be for a different purpose and audience, and each will be of a different text type.
The learner will create multimodal texts:
Each substantial multimodal text will be for a different purpose and audience.
Criterion-based assessment is a form of outcomes assessment that identifies the extent of learner achievement at an appropriate end-point of study. Although assessment – as part of the learning program – is continuous, much of it is formative, and is done to help learners identify what they need to do to attain the maximum benefit from their study of the course. Therefore, assessment for summative reporting to TASC will focus on what both teacher and learner understand to reflect end-point achievement.
The standard of achievement each learner attains on each criterion is recorded as a rating ‘A’, ‘B’, or ‘C’, according to the outcomes specified in the standards section of the course.
A ‘t’ notation must be used where a learner demonstrates any achievement against a criterion less than the standard specified for the ‘C’ rating.
A ‘z’ notation is to be used where a learner provides no evidence of achievement at all.
Providers offering this course must participate in quality assurance processes specified by TASC to ensure provider validity and comparability of standards across all awards. To learn more, see TASC's quality assurance processes and assessment information.
Internal assessment of all criteria will be made by the provider. Providers will report the learner’s rating for each criterion to TASC.
The following processes will be facilitated by TASC to ensure there is:
Process
TASC will verify that the provider’s course-delivery and assessment meet the course requirements and community expectations for fairness, integrity and validity of qualifications TASC issues. This will involve checking:
This process will be scheduled by TASC using a risk-based approach.
The assessment for English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Level 2 will be based on the degree to which a learner can, using SAE:
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| explains literal and inferential meaning, and main ideas using supporting details from the text source | describes literal meaning and main ideas with some reference to the text source | states literal meaning and main ideas in oral texts |
| explains how purpose and context shape oral texts | describes the purpose and context of oral texts | identifies the purpose and context of oral texts |
| explains how effectively text structures and language features persuade and influence the audience of oral texts | describes how text structure and language features are used in oral texts to influence the audience | describes how some aspects of text structures and language features are used in oral texts |
| explains the use of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal and inferential meaning | recognises a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal meaning | recognises simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and indicates these to others |
| compares differences between informal and formal oral texts, supporting their comparison by using examples of both | explains the difference between formal and informal oral texts using examples of both | recognises formal and informal oral texts and indicates examples of both to others |
| explains social and cultural references in oral texts. | describes some social and cultural references in oral texts. | identifies obvious social or cultural references in oral texts. |
* community refers to immediate family, school community, the local community or wider community as appropriate to the learner.
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| creates and communicates information using clear and concise language in oral interactions | creates and communicates information competently in oral interactions | creates information for oral presentation |
| orally communicates ideas and opinions using selected evidence and examples | orally communicates ideas and opinions supported by examples | orally communicates ideas and opinions |
| structures oral texts appropriately and effectively for different contexts, purposes and audiences | uses text structures to create oral texts for familiar and some unfamiliar contexts, purposes and audiences | uses basic text structures to create oral texts for familiar contexts, purposes and audiences |
| appropriately uses a wide range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of oral texts | uses a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of oral texts | uses simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of oral texts |
| creates formal and informal oral texts using a variety of tones to suit different audiences and purposes. | creates formal and informal oral texts using appropriate tone for intended audience and purpose. | creates formal and informal oral texts using tone for some intended effect. |
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| explains literal and inferential meaning and main ideas using supporting details from the text source | describes literal meaning and main ideas with some reference to the text source | states literal meaning and main ideas in written texts |
| explains how purpose and context shape written texts | describes the purpose and context of written texts | identifies the purpose and context of written texts |
| explains how effectively text structures and language features persuade and influence the audience of written texts | explains how text structure and language features are used in written texts to influence the audience | describes how some aspects of text structures and language features are used in written texts |
| explains the use of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal and inferential meaning | recognises a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal meaning | recognises simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and indicates these to others |
| compares differences between informal and formal, and narrative and descriptive written texts, supporting their comparison by using examples | explains the difference between formal and informal, and narrative and descriptive written texts using examples | recognises formal and informal, and narrative and descriptive written texts and indicates examples to others |
| identifies obvious social or cultural references in written texts. | describes some social and cultural references in written texts. | describes some social and cultural references in written texts. |
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| creates written texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions using clear and concise language | creates written texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions competently | creates written texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions |
| effectively uses a range of self-editing skills in the creation, refinement and finalisation of written texts | uses a range of self-editing skills in the creation and finalisation of written texts | uses a limited range of self-editing skills in the creation of written texts |
|
structures written texts appropriately and effectively for different contexts, purposes and audiences |
uses text structures to create written texts for familiar and some unfamiliar contexts, purposes and audiences |
uses basic text structures to create written texts for familiar contexts, purposes and audiences |
| appropriately uses a wide range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of written texts | uses a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of written texts | uses simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of written texts |
| creates formal and informal written texts using a wide vocabulary and selected language choices to suit different audiences and purposes | creates formal and informal written texts demonstrating appropriate vocabulary and language choice to suit intended audience and purpose | creates formal and informal written texts demonstrating limited vocabulary and language choice |
| accurately uses SAE spelling, grammar and punctuation in the creation of written texts. | uses SAE spelling, grammar and punctuation in the creation of written texts. | uses SAE spelling, and simple punctuation and grammar in the creation of written texts. |
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| explains literal and inferential meaning and main ideas using supporting details from the text source | describes literal meaning and main ideas with some reference to the text source | states literal meaning and main ideas in multimodal texts |
| explains how purpose and context shape multimodal texts | describes the purpose and context of multimodal texts | identifies the purpose and context of multimodal texts |
| explains how effectively text structures, language and visual features persuade and influence the audience of multimodal texts | explains how text structures, language and visual features are used in multimodal texts to influence the audience | describes how some aspects of text structures, language and visual features are used in multimodal texts |
| explains the use of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal and inferential meaning | recognises a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms and discusses their literal meaning | recognises simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms, and indicates these to others |
| compares differences between informal and formal, and narrative and descriptive multimodal texts, supporting their comparison by using examples | explains the difference between formal and informal, and narrative and descriptive multimodal texts using examples | recognises formal and informal, and narrative and descriptive multimodal texts and indicates examples to others |
| explains social and cultural references in multimodal texts. | describes some social and cultural references in multimodal texts. | identifies obvious social or cultural references in multimodal texts. |
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| creates multimodal texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions using clear and concise language | creates multimodal texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions competently | creates multimodal texts to communicate information, ideas and opinions |
| effectively uses a range of self-editing skills in the creation, refinement and finalisation of multimodal texts | uses a range of self-editing skills in the creation and finalisation of multimodal texts | uses a limited range of self-editing skills in the creation of multimodal texts |
| selects text type and structures multimodal texts appropriately and effectively for different contexts, purposes and audiences | uses text structures and text types to create multimodal texts for familiar and some unfamiliar contexts, purposes and audiences | uses basic text structures and text types to create multimodal texts for familiar contexts, purposes and audiences |
| appropriately uses a wide range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of multimodal texts | uses a range of SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of multimodal texts | uses simple SAE metaphors, connotations, slang and colloquialisms in the creation of multimodal texts |
| uses accurate SAE spelling, grammar and punctuation in the creation of multimodal texts. | uses SAE spelling, grammar and punctuation in the creation of multimodal texts. | uses SAE spelling, and simple grammar and punctuation in the creation of multimodal texts. |
Illustrative examples of multimodal texts include, but are not limited to:
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| locates and uses a wide range* of information sources | locates and uses a range* of information sources | uses a limited range* of provided information sources |
| effectively uses strategies (such as skim reading and scanning) to locate information in texts | uses strategies (such as skim reading and scanning) to locate information in texts | uses strategies (such as skim reading and scanning) as directed to locate information in texts |
| effectively uses a range of tools and strategies** to collect and organise information | uses tools and strategies** to collect and organise information | uses tools and strategies** as directed to collect and organise information |
| evaluates the accuracy and scope of information collected | makes some valid observations regarding the accuracy and scope of information collected | makes some valid observations regarding the accuracy of information collected |
| selects fundamental information from different sources and uses it in the creation of own text | selects relevant and useful information from different sources and manages its use in the creation of own text | selects and integrates relevant and useful information from different sources, and manipulates it to best effect in the creation of own text |
| uses appropriate referencing/citation methods. | uses some appropriate referencing/citation methods. | uses referencing/citation methods as directed. |
* ‘range’ has dimensions of number (how many sources) and scope of modes (books, magazines, internet, film/video etc.)
** ‘tools and strategies’ include, but are not limited to: graphic organisers; note taking.
The learner:
| Rating A | Rating B | Rating C |
|---|---|---|
| maintains task focus | maintains task focus for agreed periods of time | maintains task focus for limited periods of time |
| sets short-, medium- and long-term goals which are measurable, achievable and realistic, and plans effective actions | sets short- and medium-term goals which are measurable, achievable and realistic, and plans accordingly | sets short-term goals which are generally measurable, achievable and realistic, and follows given plans/directions |
| reflects – orally and/or in writing – on progress towards meeting goals, evaluates progress and plans future actions | reflects – orally and/or in writing – on progress towards meeting goals and articulates ways in which goals can be met in the future | reflects – orally and/or in writing – on progress towards meeting goals in a constructive manner |
| considers, selects and uses strategies to manage and complete activities within established timelines. | selects and uses strategies to perform tasks within established timelines. | uses strategies as directed to perform tasks within established timelines. |
English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Level 2 (with the award of):
EXCEPTIONAL ACHIEVEMENT
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT
COMMENDABLE ACHIEVEMENT
SATISFACTORY ACHIEVEMENT
PRELIMINARY ACHIEVEMENT
The final award will be determined by the Office of Tasmanian Assessment, Standards and Certification from the eight ratings.
The minimum requirements for an award in English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Level 2, are as follows:
EXCEPTIONAL ACHIEVEMENT (EA)
7 ‘A’ ratings, 1 ‘B’ ratings
HIGH ACHIEVEMENT (HA)
3 ‘A’ ratings, 4 ‘B’ ratings, 1 ‘C’ rating
COMMENDABLE ACHIEVEMENT (CA)
4 ‘B’ ratings, 3 ‘C’ rating
SATISFACTORY ACHIEVEMENT (SA)
6 ‘C’ ratings
PRELIMINARY ACHIEVEMENT (PA)
4 ‘C’ ratings
A learner who otherwise achieves the ratings for a CA (Commendable Achievement) or SA (Satisfactory Achievement) award but who fails to show any evidence of achievement in one or more criteria (‘z’ notation) will be issued with a PA (Preliminary Achievement) award.
The Department of Education’s Curriculum Services will develop and regularly revise the curriculum. This evaluation will be informed by the experience of the course’s implementation, delivery and assessment.
In addition, stakeholders may request Curriculum Services to review a particular aspect of an accredited course.
Requests for amendments to an accredited course will be forwarded by Curriculum Services to the Office of TASC for formal consideration.
Such requests for amendment will be considered in terms of the likely improvements to the outcomes for learners, possible consequences for delivery and assessment of the course, and alignment with Australian Curriculum materials.
A course is formally analysed prior to the expiry of its accreditation as part of the process to develop specifications to guide the development of any replacement course.
The content statements in this section, taken from ACARA-developed English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) Unit 1 and Unit 2 documents endorsed by Education Ministers as the agreed and common base for course development, are to be used to define expectations for the meaning (nature, scope and level of demand) of relevant aspects of the sections in this document setting out course requirements, learning outcomes, the course content and standards in the assessment.
Unit 1 Content Descriptions
Communication skills and strategies including:
Comprehension skills and strategies including:
Language and text analysis skills and strategies including:
Create a range of texts:
Unit 2 Content Descriptions
Communication skills and strategies including:
Comprehension skills and strategies including:
Language and text analysis skills and strategies including:
Create a range of texts:
The accreditation period for this course has been renewed from 1 January 2019 until 31 December 2021.
During the accreditation period required amendments can be considered via established processes.
Should outcomes of the Years 9-12 Review process find this course unsuitable for inclusion in the Tasmanian senior secondary curriculum, its accreditation may be cancelled. Any such cancellation would not occur during an academic year.
Version 1 – Accredited on 10 December 2013. This course replaces English as a Second Language (ESL215109) that expired on 31 December 2013.
Accreditation renewed on 22 November 2018 for the period 1 January 2019 until 31 December 2021.
Version 1.a - Access Requirement change from five (5) to six (6) years made on 1 May 2021 as per Executive Officer decision of 19 April 2020.
Version 2 - Accreditation renewed on 14 July 2021 for the period 1 January 2022 until 31 December 2025. Change to Quality Assurance methodology.
GLOSSARY
Active listening strategies
Verbal and non-verbal behaviour used to promote accurate listening.
Adverb
A word class that may modify a verb (for example, ‘beautifully’ in ‘She sings beautifully’), an adjective (for example ‘really’ in ‘He is really interesting’) or another adverb (for example ‘very’ in ‘She walks very slowly’). In English many adverbs have an –ly ending.
Anaphoric and cataphoric reference
Anaphoric reference: when a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its meaning, for example ‘I saw Jim. He is well.’
Cataphoric reference: When a word refers to ideas later in the text, for example ‘It is amazing! This car is the best new deal around!’
Appraisal
How attitudes are expressed in texts; that is, interpersonal meanings which convey an author's evaluation of something or someone and which help to position the audience.
Appreciation
The act of discerning quality and value of literary texts.
Attitude
A way of thinking about a situation/idea/character. For example, an author or audience may be subjective, supportive or antagonistic towards something or someone.
Also, from the perspective of pragmatics, it is a system of appraisal comprising: affect (positive or negative feelings), appreciation (evaluations of worth), and judgement (attitudes towards behaviour).
Audience
The group of readers, listeners or viewers that the writer, designer, filmmaker or speaker is addressing. Audience includes learners in the classroom, an individual, the wider community, review writers, critics and the implied audience.
Author
The composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay, autobiography).
Clause
A grammatical unit that refers to a happening or state (for example, ‘The netball team won’ [happening], ‘The cartoon is an animation’ [state]).
A clause usually contains a subject and a verb group/phrase (for example, ‘The team [subject] has played [verb group/phrase] a fantastic game’), which may be accompanied by an object or other complements (elements that are closely related to the verb – for example, ‘the match’ in ‘The team lost the match’) and/or adverbials (for example, ‘on a rainy night’ in ‘The team won on a rainy night’).
A clause can be either a ‘main’ or ‘subordinate clause’ depending on its function:
In these examples square brackets have been used to indicate the subordinate clause:
Clause type
Clause type is also referred to as mood. It refers to the classification of clauses in terms of their primary function. There are four main clause types in English: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative.
Cohesion
Grammatical or lexical relationships that bind different parts of a text together and give it unity. Cohesion is achieved through various devices such as connectives, ellipses and word associations (sometimes called lexical cohesion). These associations include synonyms, antonyms (for example, ‘study/laze about’, ‘ugly/beautiful’), repetition (for example, ‘work, work, work – that’s all we do!’) and collocation (for example, ‘friend’ and ‘pal’ in, ‘My friend did me a big favour last week. She’s been a real pal.’).
Collocation
Words that commonly occur in close association with one another (for example, ‘blonde’ goes with ‘hair’, ‘butter’ is ‘rancid’ not ‘rotten’, ‘salt and pepper’ not ‘pepper and salt’.
Complex sentence
A complex sentence has one or more subordinate clauses. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are indicated by square brackets: ‘I took my umbrella [because it was raining].’; ‘[Because I am reading Shakespeare], my time is limited.’; ‘The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.’
Compound sentence
A sentence with two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked by a coordinating conjunction such as ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’. In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated by square brackets: ‘[Jill came home this morning] [but she didn't stay long].’; ‘[Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and Sam is an architect].’
Comprehension strategies
Strategies and processes used by readers to make meaning from texts. Key comprehension strategies include:
Conceptual metaphor
Seeing one thing in terms of another, for example, argument is war; prices are rising.
Conjunction
A word class that joins other words, phrases or clauses together in logical relationships such as addition, time, cause or comparison. There are two types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions are words that link words, groups/phrases and clauses in such a way that the elements have equal grammatical status. They include conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’:
Subordinating conjunctions introduce certain kinds of subordinate clauses. They include conjunctions such as ‘after’, ‘when’, ‘because’, ‘if’ and ‘that’:
Context
The environment in which a text is responded to or created. Context can include the general social, historical and cultural conditions in which a text is responded to and created (the context of culture) or the specific features of its immediate environment (context of situation). The term is also used to refer to the wording surrounding an unfamiliar word that a reader or listener uses to understand its meaning.
Convention
An accepted practice that has developed over time and is generally used and understood, for example, the use of specific structural aspects of texts such as in report writing with sections for introduction, background, discussion and recommendations.
Dialect
Refers to English as an Additional Language or Dialect. EAL/D is the educational acronym referring to those learners whose home language is a language or dialect other than Standard Australian English (SAE) and who require additional support to develop proficiency in SAE, which is the variety of spoken and written English used formally in Australian schools. The acronym EAL/D foregrounds the English language learning needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learners who speak an Aboriginal or Torres Strait creole, or a variety of Aboriginal English, as their home language, as well as those who speak a traditional or heritage Indigenous language, and migrant and refugee learners who speak an English-based creole, pidgin or dialect as their home language, as well as those who are learning English as a second or additional language (ESL/EAL).
Digital forms
Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology, which may be interactive and include animations and/or hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites, e-literature.
Discourse markers
Words and phrases used in speaking and writing to ‘signpost’ discourse by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and generally controlling communication. Some people regard discourse markers as a feature of spoken language only (for example, ‘actually’, ‘so’, ‘OK’, ‘right?’, ‘anyway’).
Dramatic irony
When the words and actions of the characters have a different meaning for the reader than they do for the characters.
Engagement
The perspective of the author (for example, ‘It is obvious that...’).
Everyday texts
Texts that are encountered in people’s daily lives; for example, transport schedules, maps, emails, invitations, casual conversations, making an appointment with a doctor/dentist/health centre, an interaction with a retail person, a waiter taking orders, storytelling.
Figurative language
Word groups/phrases used in a way that differs from the expected or everyday usage. They are used in a non-literal way for particular effect (for example, simile – ‘white as a sheet’; metaphor – ‘all the world’s a stage’; personification – ‘the wind grabbed at my clothes’).
Genre
The categories into which texts are grouped. The term has a complex history within literary theory and is often used to distinguish texts on the basis of their subject matter (for example, detective fiction, romance, science fiction, fantasy fiction), form and structure (for example, poetry, novels, biography, short stories).
Grammar
The language we use and the description of language as a system. In describing language, attention is paid to both structure (form) and meaning (function) at the level of the word, the sentence and the text.
Group/phrase
The terms ‘group’ and ‘phrase’ are used by different schools of linguistics to refer to units intermediate between the clause and the word. In the English curriculum, ‘group/phrase’ is used to recognise these different usages. For example, the units enclosed in brackets in the following sentence are examples of a group/phrase: ‘(The carnival) (had made) (the two little girls with the red shirts) (very tired)’.
In the example, ‘the carnival’ and ‘the two little girls with the red shirts’ are called noun groups/phrases because they have a noun (‘carnival’ and ‘girls’) as their major element; similarly, ‘had made’ is a verb group/phrase and ‘very tired’ an adjective group/phrase.
Idiom
A group of (more or less) fixed words having a meaning not deducible from the individual words. Idioms are typically informal expressions used by particular social groups and need to be explained as one unit (for example, ‘I am over the moon’, ‘on thin ice’, ‘a fish out of water’, ‘fed up to the back teeth’).
Intonation
The rise and fall of one’s voice when speaking; sometimes used for emphasis.
Language features
The features of language that support meaning (for example, sentence structure, noun group/phrase, vocabulary, punctuation, figurative language, framing, camera angles). Choices in language features and text structures together define a type of text and shape its meaning. These choices vary according to the purpose of a text, its subject matter, audience, and mode or medium of production.
Layout
The spatial arrangement of print and graphics on a page or screen, including size of font, positioning of illustrations, inclusion of captions, labels, headings, bullet points, borders and text boxes.
Lexical chains
A sequence of related words in writing.
Lexis
Vocabulary of a language.
Media texts
Spoken, print, graphic or electronic communications with a public audience. They often involve numerous people in their construction and are usually shaped by the technology used in their production. The media texts studied in English can be found in newspapers and magazines and on television, film, radio, computer software and the internet.
Medium
The resources used in the production of texts, including the tools and materials used (for example, digital text and the computer, writing and the pen or typewriter).
Metalanguage
Language used to discuss language (for example, language used to discuss film or literary study such as mise-en-scène, symbolism, characterisation or language used to talk about grammatical terms such as ‘sentence’, clause’, ‘conjunction’).
Modality
An area of meaning having to do with possibility, probability, obligation and permission. In the following examples, the modal meanings are expressed by the auxiliary verbs ‘must’ and ‘may’:
Modality can also be expressed by several different kinds of words:
Mode
The various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing/creating. Modes are also used to refer to the semiotic (meaning making) resources associated with these communicative processes, such as sound, print, image and gesture.
Morpheme
The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit in language. Morphemes are not necessarily the same as words. The word ‘cat’ has one morpheme, while the word ‘cats’ has two morphemes: ‘cat’ for the animal and ‘s’ to indicate that there is more than one. Similarly, ‘like’ has one morpheme, while ‘dislike’ has two: ‘like’ to describe appreciation and ‘dis’ to indicate the opposite. Morphemes are very useful in helping learners work out how to read and spell words.
Multimodal text
Combination of two or more communication modes (for example, print, image and spoken text, as in film or computer presentations).
Narrative
A story of events or experiences, real or imagined. In literary theory, narrative includes the story (what is narrated) and the discourse (how it is narrated).
Narrative point of view
The ways in which a narrator may be related to the story. For example, the narrator might take the role of first or third person, omniscient or restricted in knowledge of events, reliable or unreliable in interpreting what happens.
Nominalisation
Personification
The description of an inanimate object as though it were a person or living thing.
Perspective
The way a reader/viewer is positioned by the author through the text, or how a particular ideology is embedded in a text, for example, a feminist perspective.
Phrase
A unit intermediate between clause and word, consisting of a head word alone or accompanied by one or more dependents. The class of a phrase is determined by the head: a phrase with a noun as head is a noun group/phrase (for example, ‘men’ or ‘the men who died’); one with a verb as head is a verb group/phrase (for example, ‘went’ or ‘had gone’).
Point of view
The opinion or viewpoint expressed by an individual in a text, for example an author, a narrator, a character or an implied reader.
Preposition
A word class that usually describes the relationship between words in a sentence:
Prepositions usually combine with a noun group/phrase to form a prepositional phrase (for example, ‘in the office’, ‘besides these two articles’).
Pronunciation
The way a word or language is spoken. This may vary regionally (for example, American English, British English), socially (by social class of speakers, their age, educational background, sexual orientation) and according to the setting (for example, formal, informal).
Register
The degree of formality or informality of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
Rhetorical devices
Language techniques used in argument to persuade audiences (for example, rhetorical questions, repetition, propositions, figurative language).
Rhetorical question
A question that is asked to provoke thought rather than require an answer.
Rhythm
The ‘beat’ of spoken language. In a stress-timed language such as SAE, speakers put roughly equal time lags between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables between them being adjusted to accommodate the stress timing.
Scanning
When reading, moving the eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when readers first find a resource to determine whether it will answer their questions.
Sentence
In writing, a sentence is marked by punctuation, but in speech, the boundaries between sentences are not always so clear.
There are different types of sentences:
Sociocultural
The way language is affected by the society and culture within which it is situated.
Sociolinguistic
The way language is affected by society and its social structures and attitudes.
Standard Australian English
The variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the ‘common language’ of Australians. Standard Australian English.
Stress
The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence.
Style
The ways in which aspects of texts (such as words, sentences, images) are arranged and how they affect meaning. Style can distinguish the work of individual authors (for example, Jennings’s stories, Lawson’s poems), as well as the work of a particular period (for example, Elizabethan drama, nineteenth-century novels), or of a particular genre or type of text (for example, recipes, scientific articles, play-by-play commentary). Examples of stylistic features are narrative viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition, nominalisation, alliteration, metaphor, lexical choice.
Subject matter
Refers to the topic or theme under consideration.
Syntax
The ways in which sentences are formed from words, group/phrases and clauses. In some education settings, the terms ‘syntax’ and ‘grammar’ are used interchangeably.
Tense
A grammatical category marked by a verb in which the situation described in the clause is located in time. For example, present tense ‘has’ in ‘Sarah has a headache’ locates the situation in present time, while past tense ‘had’ in ‘Sarah had a headache’ locates it in past time.
However, the relation between grammatical tense and (semantic) time is not always as simple as this. For example, present tense is typically used to talk about:
Text structure
The ways in which information is organised in different types of texts (for example, chapter headings, subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries, overviews, introductory and concluding paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect). Choices in text structures and language features together define a text type and shape its meaning. Examples of text structures in literary texts include sonnets, monologues and hypertext.
Theme
The main idea or message of a text
Grammatical theme indicates importance both within a clause and across a text. In a clause, the theme comes in first position and indicates what the sentence is about. Theme is important at different levels of text organisation. The topic sentence serves as the theme for the points raised in a paragraph. A pattern of themes contributes to the method of development for the text as a whole.
Tone
Tone describes the way the ‘voice’ is delivered. For example, the tone of voice or the tone in a passage of writing could be friendly or angry or persuasive.
Types of texts
Classifications of texts according to the particular purposes they are designed to achieve. In general, in the senior subjects in the Australian Curriculum: English, texts are classified as imaginative, interpretive, analytical or persuasive types of texts, although these distinctions are neither static nor discrete and particular texts can belong to more than one category.
Analytical texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to identify, examine and draw conclusions about the elements or components that make up other texts. Analytical texts develop an argument or consider or advance an interpretation. Examples of these texts include commentaries, essays in criticism, reflective or discursive responses and reviews.
Imaginative texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to entertain or provoke thought through their imaginative use of literary elements. They are recognised for their form, style and artistic or aesthetic value. These texts include novels, traditional tales, poetry, stories, plays, fiction for young adults and children including picture books, and multimodal texts such as film.
Interpretive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to explain and interpret personalities, events, ideas, representations or concepts. They include autobiography, biography, media feature articles, documentary film and other non-fiction texts. There is a focus on interpretive rather than informative texts in the senior years of schooling.
Persuasive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a reader, viewer or listener. They form a significant part of modern communication in both print and digital environments. They include advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics and essays and articles.
Verb
A word class that describes a kind of situation such as a happening (for example, ‘climbed’ in ‘She climbed the ladder’) or a state (for example, ‘is’ in ‘The koala is an Australian mammal’).
Verbs are essential to clause structure: all clauses contain a verb, except in certain types of ellipsis (for example, ‘Sue lives in Sydney, her parents in Melbourne’, where there is ellipsis of ‘live’ in the second clause).
Virtually all verbs have contrasting past and present tense forms. Some are signalled by inflections such as ‘-s’ and ‘-ed’. For example:
Other verbs have irregular forms that signal a change in tense. For example:
Auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are two types of verbs:
Visual elements
Visual components of a text such as placement, salience, framing, representation of action or reaction, shot size, social distance and camera angle.
Voice
In the literary sense, voice can be used to refer to the nature of the voice projected in a text by an author (for example, ‘authorial voice’ in a literary text, or ‘expert voice’ in an exposition).
In English grammar, voice is used to describe the contrast between such pairs of clauses as ‘The dog bit me’ (active voice) and ‘I was bitten by the dog’ (passive voice). Active and passive clauses differ in the way participant roles are associated with grammatical functions.
In clauses expressing actions, like the above examples, the subject of the active (‘the dog’) has the role of actor, and the object (‘me’) the role of patient, whereas in the passive the subject (‘I’) has the role of patient and the object of the preposition by (‘the dog’) the role of actor.
In clauses that describe situations other than actions, such as ‘Everyone admired the minister’ and ‘The minister was admired by everyone’, the same grammatical difference is found, so that the object of the active (‘the minister’) corresponds to the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active (‘everyone’) corresponds to the object of the preposition ‘by’.
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(2017-07-21 01:05pm AEST)