INTRODUCTION
There is no prerequisite learning for access to this course. It is expected that learners will bring differing levels of knowledge, understanding and skills to the study of the chosen ancient civilisation. Providers may choose to deliver the introductory topics below:
The Chronological and Geographical Context:
- a broad chronological overview, from the origins of the society to the period that is the focus for investigation
- the geographic location, including the nature of the environment and its influence on the society.
Historical Methodology:
- an introduction to the nature of the surviving evidence
- types of sources: primary, secondary, written, archaeological
- problems with sources: bias, omissions.
SECTION A – INVESTIGATING THE ANCIENT WORLD
This Unit provides an introduction to the nature of the remaining evidence of the ancient past and issues relevant to the investigation of the ancient world. Learners investigate the evidence for an ancient site, event, development or era, how it has been interpreted and represented, and the reliability or usefulness of historical evidence in constructing representations of the past.
Learners will include the chronological and geographical context of an ancient society; the historical context in which the civilisation emerged or developed; apply key concepts as part of historical inquiry (including evidence, perspectives, interpretation and representation) and assess historical interpretations and arguments in the historical record. Studies may include preservation, conservation, and/or reconstruction of ancient sites; cultural heritage, ownership and the role of museums; treatment and display of human remains.
TABLE 3: SECTION A TOPICS
| CIVILISATION |
TOPICS (Select ONE) |
| Egypt |
Topic A1: The Battle of Kadesh |
|
OR
Greece
|
Topic A2: The destruction of Troy OR
Topic A3: Delphi |
| OR
Rome
|
Topic A4: Masada OR
Topic A5: The Roman Games |
| OR
China
|
Topic A6: Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties |
| OR
Assyria
|
Topic A7: Ziggurats of Mesopotamia |
The historical background will inform the study of ONE selected site, event, development or era of ONE selected civilisation either Egypt OR Greece OR Rome OR China OR Assyria. (Table 3)
Relationship of Section to Learning Outcomes:
Specific Learning Outcome about knowledge of, and understanding about an ancient civilisation related to Section A.
Learners will be able to:
- describe the nature of events and historical contexts and assess the impact of change on the civilisation
- assess the impact of chronological context on the history of ancient societies
- describe the geographical context, including the nature of the environment and its influence on an ancient society.
In Section A, learners will develop the skills they need to meet the Learning Outcomes related to historical inquiry and communication.
This section of the course has a focus on:
- the impact of significant events, developments, eras or sites on the nature of an ancient civilisation
- identification and evaluation of different perspectives and interpretations of the past and on an understanding of the issue of contestability in history
- the nature of historical methodology.
EGYPT
Topic A1: The Battle of Kadesh
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC (BCE)) in the reign of Rameses II, including the nature of the Egyptian empire, Hittite expansion, the location of the battle on the Orontes river, and the causes and course of the battle
- the nature of the sources most relevant to these interpretations and representations, for example the reliefs of the battle in the Abu Simbel temple, inscriptions including the ‘Poem’ and the ‘Bulletin’, the references to the battle in Hittite texts, the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty inscription; and the significance of the sources in the reconstruction of the battle
- the different interpretations and representations of the Battle of Kadesh (from the ancient past, to the more recent past, to today), including the portrayal of the battle by Rameses II as a decisive Egyptian victory, and more recent portrayals of the battle as a stalemate
- the historical context of the interpretations and representations of the Battle of Kadesh and why these have changed, for example the importance of the warrior pharaoh ideal in Rameses II’s depiction of events
- the reliability and contestability of the interpretations and representations of the Battle of Kadesh, including the role of Rameses II in the battle; and the significance of source selection, omission, emphasis and gaps in evidence.
GREECE
Topic A2: The destruction of Troy
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of the destruction of the Troy, evidence of different layers of Troy throughout the ancient past, including Anotalian (Troy I–V) Bronze Age (Troy VI and VII), and ancient civilisations linked to Troy: Bronze Age Greece, the Myceneans and Hittite Empire in 13th Century BC (BCE), King Hattusili and the Ahhiyawa Kingdom
- the nature of the sources most relevant to the representations portrayed, for example Homer’s Iliad; archaeological evidence from Mycenae; Hissarlik/Troy and the foreign office records of the Hittites including the Manapu-Tarhunda letter and Tawagalawa Letter; the discoveries at Troy by Schliemann, Dörpfeld, Blegen; the significance of the sources in the reconstruction of the Trojan War; and the evidence that Wilusa is Troy
- the differing representations and interpretations of the destruction of Troy (from the ancient past, to the more recent past, to today), including the tradition of the ‘Trojan War’; the role of Paris and Helen in the Trojan War; and that Troy was destroyed by earthquake and fire (Dörpfeld’s reinterpretation of Troy II and VI)
- the historical context of the representations and interpretations of the destruction of Troy and why these have changed over time, for example maritime archaeology; the importance of the discovery of the Hittite foreign office records at Hattusa; excavations by Dörpfeld, Blegen and Korfmann
- the reliability and contestable nature of the representations of the destruction of Troy and the historicity of the Trojan War, including the significance of gaps in evidence, source selection, omission and emphasis.
GREECE
Topic A3: Delphi
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of Delphi; evidence of the ancient past of Delphi, including its mythical origins dating to the pre-classical Greek world (c. 1400 BC); Delphi as a post-Mycenaean settlement in late 9th century BC (BCE); Delphi’s significance during the classical period of Ancient Greece 510–323 BC (BCE)
- the nature of the sources most relevant to the representations portrayed, for example, archaeological evidence from Delphi; the nature of monuments built to demonstrate Hellenic unity of ancient Greek city states; architectural structures such as the Temple of Apollo, the Delphi theatre, Tholos; the significance of pan-Hellenic sanctuaries; multiple uses such as Pythian Games; mousikas agon (musical competition)
- the differing representations and interpretations of Delphi (from the ancient past, to the more recent past, to today), including the Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo; the written record of Pliny the Younger; Plutarch as an eye-witness source; proposed attribution of inscriptions to Plato; origin myths and legends; patronage by emperor Hadrian, introduction of Christian use of the site – church in the gymnasium
- the chronology and significance of the archaeological record for example the French Archaeological School (1893); World Heritage Site listing 1987 (UNESCO)
- the historical context of the representations and interpretations of Delphi and why these have changed over time, for example recent scientific analysis of the site, both geological and chemical investigation of the mysterious vapours; importance of significant prophecies at times of crisis that have been used to determine actions
- the reliability and contestable nature of the representations of Delphi including the significance of gaps in evidence; source selection; omission and emphasis, including the building of the modern village upon the ancient foundations, re-use of building materials; subsequent dismantling of the village and re-location of its people after an earthquake.
ROME
Topic A4: Masada
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of Masada, including its location and physical features, an overview of the Roman control of Judaea and the organisation of the province, the problems between the Jews and the Romans leading to the outbreak of war, the course of the siege of Masada, the role of Jewish rebels, and the Roman occupation of Masada
- the nature of the sources most relevant to these interpretations and representations, for example Josephus Flavius’ The Jewish War, written and archaeological evidence for Roman military tactics and siege warfare, and the excavation work of Yigael Yadin
- the different interpretations and representations of Masada (from the ancient past to the more recent past, to today) including the notion of the event as a Roman victory, and re-evaluations of Masada as a symbol of Jewish persecution
- the historical context of the interpretations and representations of Masada and why these have changed over time
- the reliability and contestability of the interpretations and representations of Masada, including the accuracy of Josephus Flavius’ account in The Jewish War, debates about the meaning of the events at Masada in AD 73–74, the role of archaeology, and the significance of source selection, omission, emphasis and gaps in evidence.
ROME
Topic A5: The Roman Games
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of the Roman games, including their origin as funerary commemorations, Etruscan influences, Caesar’s games for Julia, the violent nature of Roman society, types of gladiators (male and female) and their training, the role of amphitheatres as foci within Roman towns, and the significance of the Colosseum and Circus Maximus as venues
- the nature of the sources most relevant to the interpretations and representations of the games, for example the writings of Juvenal, Cicero and Tacitus; the graffiti from Pompeii; and statuettes and mosaics
- the different interpretations and representations of the games (from the ancient past to the present), including the cruelty of the gladiatorial games (Seneca and Christians), the political nature of the games as ‘bread and circuses’, the role of blood sports in Roman society, and modern portrayals in novels and films
- the historical context of the interpretations and representations and why these have changed, for example romantic representations, Christian interpretations, and modern versions of gladiatorial contests
- the reliability and contestability of interpretations and representations of the games, including the origins of the games (foreign or roman); debates about the political significance of the games and the power and authority of the Emperor, the senatorial class, and the masses; and the significance of source selection, omission, emphasis and gaps in evidence.
CHINA
Topic A6: Xia (c. 2100–1600 BC (BCE)), Shang (c. 1600–1100 BC (BCE)) and Zhou (c. 1100–256 BC (BCE)) Dynasties
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties of early China
- the nature of the sources most relevant to the representation of the period; records of the Grand Historian written by Sima Qian in the Han dynasty, begins with the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, leading through a sequence of dynasties, the Xia, Shang and Zhou
- significance of deities; the significance of mythology; Pangu, the creator of the universe
- significance of the Xia period as an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilisation of the Shang dynasty
- nature of the historical record; based on old archaeological information, ancient texts including oracle-bone inscriptions; oracle-bone inscriptions used as a source of data on the late Shang; little exists on earlier periods; interpretations, modified by oral transmission and the court historians who made the records
- purpose of temples and tombs of the period; archaeological record of architectural foundations, tombs, chariots, bronze vessels, ceramics, and about 150,000 oracle bones. The oracle bones attest to a rich written language, primarily used for divination
- nature of the record; dispute over historiography and dating; The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project; historical dispute over the Xia and Shang considered state-level societies which constituted large centralised political systems
- differing representations of the period; scientific excavations of early bronze-age sites at Anyang, Henan Province in 1928; previously no evidence to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia
- the historical context of the representations and interpretations of the archaeological record
- the reliability and contestable nature of the representations the period including the significance of gaps in evidence, source selection, omission and emphasis.
ASSYRIA
Topic A7: Ziggurats of Mesopotamia
Content will include:
- the geographic and historical context of the building of ziggurats in Mesopotamia; origins of earliest ziggurats near the end of the Early Dynastic Period (2900–2350 BC (BCE)); Ziggurat of UR built c. 2100 BC (BCE); restored 6th century BC (BCE); modern restorations
- the nature of the sources most relevant to the analysis of purpose
- significance of deities; but by king Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur for the moon god Nanna, the patron deity of the city state
- purpose; a temple that also served as an administrative centre for the city
- the nature of the record; Herodotus; little physical evidence remains; impact of time and the elements
- differing representations of the Ziggurat of Ur
- the historical context of the representations and interpretations of significance and purpose in the archaeological record
- the reliability and contestable nature of the representations the Ziggurat of Ur including the significance of gaps in evidence, source selection, omission and emphasis.
SECTION B – STRUCTURE OF ANCIENT SOCIETIES
In this section learners will study the political, social, economic and cultural structure and practices of an ancient society within an historical context. Studies will also include investigations into key ‘features’* of an ancient civilisation that evidence the nature of the structure of an ancient society. The two aspects of this study will be integrated, however, the focus is on investigating the political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices of an ancient society.
Learners will study the same civilisation selected for study in Section A. (Egypt OR Greece OR Rome OR China OR Assyria).
* In this context, ‘feature’ refers to elements of society, culture, arts, technology, religion or politics of an ancient society. These features will be used as evidence of the nature of an ancient society and of change and continuity. See Table 4.
Relationship of Section to Learning Outcomes:
Specific Learning Outcome about knowledge of, and understanding about an ancient civilisation related to Section B.
Learners will be able to:
- describe the characteristics of social, political, economic and cultural structure and practices of an ancient society and assess the historical evidence of key features of an ancient civilisation
- assess the impact of chronological context on the history of ancient societies including continuity and change over time
- describe the geographical context, including the nature of the environment and its influence on the society.
Learners will also develop the skills they need to meet the Learning Outcomes related to historical inquiry and communication.
For the chosen society, learners investigate the chronological and geographical context, social structure, political institutions, economic activities; and cultural practices; and refer to elective features that provide evidence of the core elements of learners’ historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
Learners will select features as appropriate for the society selected, for example, Drama will only be selected as evidence for Greece or Rome (Table 2).
TABLE 4: SECTION B COMPULSORY ELEMENTS AND FEATURES
| CIVILISATIONS Select ONE |
COMPULSORY elements to be studied to investigate the nature of an ancient society |
FEATURES* |
Egypt
OR |
ALL FOUR core elements will be studied.
- political
- social
- economic
- cultural.
structures and practices of an ancient society within an historical context
|
Select at least ONE feature to source relevant primary and secondary evidence that supports analysis of the political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices of an ancient society.
- Arts, Architecture and Drama
- Weapons and Warfare
- Technology and Engineering
- Women and Families
- Beliefs, Rituals and Funerary Practices.
|
Greece
OR |
Rome
OR |
China
OR |
|
Assyria
|
* Learners must reference sufficient features to address all four core elements of this study: political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
In the selected ancient society learners will study the:
- chronological and geographical context
- historical context
- political structure of an ancient civilisation including:
- political organisations
- the role and function of political institutions
- key features of political organisations
- key legal structures
- social structure of an ancient civilisation including:
- hierarchies (elites, workers, slaves, ethnic groups and foreigners)
- roles and status and attitudes toward women, children and education
- economic structure of an ancient civilisation including:
- the nature and importance of economic activity (agriculture, commerce, industry, trade and building)
- major trading partners of an ancient society; trade routes
- free and indentured labour
- economic exchange in the forms of tribute, taxation and coinage
- piracy and booty (looting)
- cultural practices of an ancient society
- the nature and significance of cultural practices
- the nature of material culture (for example arts, architecture, textiles, glassware, functional domestic items; jewellery; crafts)
- the impact of expansion and invasion on cultural practices including language, technology, religious beliefs and practices, cosmology
- traditions and customs for example marriage rituals, celebrations.
SECTION B – FEATURE 1: ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND DRAMA
Learners will study at least ONE of Art OR Architecture OR Drama if Feature 1 is selected for study.
In the study of this feature learners will identify the nature of the remaining evidence in Art or Architecture or Drama.
This evidence may be used to explain:
- the nature of political structure and political strategies of an ancient society
- social hierarchies
- economic structures
- religious beliefs and cultural practices.
The historical context of the selected ancient civilisation will provide the basis for the relevance of evidence to investigations into the core elements of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
If Art is selected for study as evidence of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices, this will include reference to architectural sites where there is evidence of relevant artworks.
If Architecture is selected for study as evidence of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices this will include reference to art works within relevant architectural sites.
Learners will investigate the location, main features, origins and significance of the selected sites and eras for studies in Art OR Architecture, and the nature and extent of civilisation at the time. Studies will include the characteristics of Art OR Architecture, the purpose, the political, cultural and religious significance of the sites, as well as the nature of the remaining evidence.
If Drama is selected as the feature for study, learners will investigate the nature and purpose of drama in an ancient society, how drama works were presented, the social and religious context as well as characteristics of drama works. This study will be investigated in the historical context of the society at the time the drama works were written and performed. This will only be studied in relation to Greece or Rome.
Requirements:
Art OR Architecture OR Drama will be investigated in the context of ONE civilisation: either Egypt OR Greece, OR Rome OR China OR Assyria.
This study will focus on:
- investigation of significant ancient sites, their Art OR Architecture through an analysis of relevant archaeological and written sources
- understanding characteristics and purpose of Art OR Architecture in an ancient society; interpretation and evaluation of evidence
- evidence for the spread of particular forms of Art OR Architecture in the ancient world through trade, the movement of peoples, and conquest.
Sites relevant to this study will include but are not limited to:
- Thebes: East and West, 18th Dynasty to the death of Ramesses III, New Kingdom Egypt
- The Athenian Agora, Acropolis and Kerameikos 514–330 BC (BCE)
- Pompeii and Herculaneum, 80 BC (BCE) – 79 CE and the historical context
- China – city Xiányáng, the Imperial capital of the Qin Dynasty; mausoleum of Qin Shi Huangdi
- Neo-Assyrian city of Nimrud and its archaeological record; Middle Assyrian Empire; reign of Shalmaneser I (1274 BC–1245 BC)
SECTION B – FEATURE 1.1: THEBES – EAST AND WEST, 18th DYNASTY TO THE DEATH OF RAMESSES II (19th DYNASTY), NEW KINGDOM EGYPT
Learners study Thebes – east and west in the period from the 18th dynasty to the death of Ramesses III, with particular reference to the remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.
Learners will focus on either Art OR Architecture, however, this may include the reference to arts, for example, within architectural sites.
Content will include:
1.1.1 – The geographic and historical context (brief overview)
- location, main features and layout of Thebes, including its origins, the significance of the Nile, and the division between the East and West Bank
- nature and extent of the Egyptian ‘empire’ in Nubia and Syria–Palestine in the period.
1.1.2 – The historical period
- development of the East Bank of Thebes, including the temples of Karnak and Luxor
- development of the West Bank: the Valleys of the Kings and Queens
- political and religious significance and purpose of the temples and palaces
- nature and significance of cultural life and practices; afterlife beliefs and practices of royalty and non-royalty
- importance of the pharaonic building program at Thebes in the economic life of New Kingdom Egypt
- significance of the evidence at the Theban sites provided by human remains and other artistic and archaeological sources.
Learners will select specific content from 1.1.3–1.1.6 to be used as evidence to support historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in ancient Egypt. Content may include but is not limited to:
1.1.3 – Art OR Architecture
ART
- characteristics of New Kingdom art including royal art, non-royal art; funerary art; significance of the afterlife; politico-religious role of the pharaoh
- purposes of art.
ARCHITECTURE
- characteristics of New Kingdom architecture including royal and non-royal; tombs; significance of the afterlife; temple complexes; architecture as statements about the politico-religious role of pharaoh, his relationships with gods, his power (propaganda)
- purposes of architecture.
1.1.4 – The nature and range of sources: limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources
- key archaeological and written sources for the period
- usefulness and reliability of the portrayal of pharaoh and royal family
- difficulties of interpretation of evidence
- significance of writing, literature and material culture as sources of evidence for the period.
1.1.5 – Identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation)
- discoveries and influence of early adventurers and explorers
- nature of the Theban excavations and use of scientific methods, and contributions of significant archaeologists and institutions
- effectiveness of the protection and conservation of the Theban sites.
1.1.6 – Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, including new discoveries, research and technologies
- research and recording work
- contribution of Italian fresco conservateurs to the conservation and restoration of the Theban tomb paintings
- contribution of new scientific methodologies
- contribution of scholars and contemporary Egyptian and international historians.
OR
SECTION B – FEATURE 1.2: THE ATHENIAN AGORA, ACROPOLIS AND KERAMEIKOS 514–330 BC (BCE)
Learners study the Athenian Agora, Acropolis and Kerameikos in the period of the 514–330 BC (BCE), with particular reference to the architectural, artistic and archaeological remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.
Learners will focus on either Art OR Architecture, however, this may include the reference to arts, for example, within architectural sites.
Content will include:
1.2.1 – The geographic and historical context (overview)
- location, main features and layout of the city Athens, including the Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos and the topography of Attica
- overview of the history of the Agora (since the 6th century BC (BCE)) and the Acropolis (since the Bronze Age).
1.2.2 – The historical period (overview)
- an overview of significant events in the early history of Athens
- role of the Agora and the Acropolis in Athenian political life
- importance of the Agora in Athenian economic life
- importance of Kerameikos in Athenian religious life
- Athenian class system
- development of religious and cultural life of Athens
- significance of key events in the period
- aims and influence of Socrates - the Athenian political scene at the time.
Learners will select specific content from 1.2.3–1.2.6 to be used as evidence to support historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in ancient Greece. Content may include but is not limited to:
1.2.3 – Art OR Architecture
ART
- characteristics of Greek art including techniques, subject matter, statues and sculpture of the Classical period; relief and free standing sculpture, materials and use of colour; private and public art; religious art; grave markers; funerary sculpture
- purposes of art.
ARCHITECTURE
- characteristics of Greek architecture including religious roles of temples; theatres; economic function of the agora; construction, materials and technologies
- purposes of architecture.
1.2.4 – The nature and range of sources: limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources
- key archaeological and written sources for the period
- incomplete nature of the evidence
- contribution of sculpture, pottery, inscriptions and other literary sources to an understanding of life in Athens
- difficulties of interpretation of evidence as a result of damage to, or removal of, artefacts
- remaining and new excavations; damage to sites.
1.2.5 – Identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation)
- key excavations
- the changing methods used and the arguments for and against carrying out further excavation at ancient sites
- difficulties in conserving the Agora, Acropolis and Kerameikos
- ethical issues, including the Parthenon Sculptures controversy.
1.2.6 – Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies
- contribution of the American School in Athens to the study of the Agora and of Greek and international archaeologists to the excavation and study of the Acropolis
- interpretations of the identifications (for example of the Stoa Poikile in the Agora), uses and dating of buildings over time
- interpretations and meaning of sculpted friezes and scenes on black and red figured pottery
- interpretations of the trial and death of Socrates
- Kerameikos Museum and the (new) Acropolis Museum and – technology for the display, conservation and preservation of ancient works.
DRAMA
Note: this option is only available if Greece OR Rome are selected for study.
This feature will investigate the nature and purpose of drama in an ancient society, how drama works were presented, the social and religious context as well as key characteristics of drama works. This study will be investigated in historical context of the society at the time the drama works were written and performed.
Requirement: At least one major dramatic text will be studied to support historical arguments on the nature of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in an ancient society.
Studies will include reference to archaeological sites. Sites may include but are not limited to the theatres of the Agora, Acropolis and Kerameikos.
1.2.7: GREECE
Content will include:
- the historical context of the civilisation in the period of study
- nature and purpose of drama in the ancient society
- physical context in which drama works were presented
- social / religious context in which drama works were presented, and to whom they were presented
- what ancient works tell us about the society in which they were written and performed
- themes of drama works, and what these tell about the ancient society
- famous playwrights, authors, and their importance, for example, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes.
Content may include, but is not limited to:
- religious context, significance of Dionysus, his cult, and drama festivals
- characteristic of Greek theatres, their architectural plan (including seating arrangements), their acoustic features, use of costume and masks
- use of stock characters; actors’ ‘off stage’ social status.
OR
SECTION B – FEATURE 1.3: POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM, 80 BC (BCE) – AD (CE) 79
Learners study will focus on Pompeii and Herculaneum in the period, 80 BC (BCE) – CE 79, with particular reference to the architectural, artistic and archaeological remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.
Learners will focus on either Art OR Architecture, however, this may include the reference to arts, for example, within architectural sites.
Content will include:
1.3.1 – The geographic and historical context (overview)
- location of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Campania, the volcanic plateau
- overview of the history of Pompeii and Herculaneum since the 8th century BC (BCE).
1.3.2 – The historical period (overview)
- plans, streets and roads of Pompeii and Herculaneum and what they reveal about town planning
- circumstances of the eruption of 79 AD (CE), including Pliny’s account of the eruption of Mt Vesuvius
- nature and development of political life in Pompeii and Herculaneum, including the significance of fora, temples, basilicas, theatres and graffiti as sources
- important features of the economy, including commerce, industries and occupations
- position and role of different groups in society, including the position and role of men, women, freedmen and slaves
- evidence at Pompeii and Herculaneum for religious beliefs and practices, for example wall paintings, mosaics, statues and inscriptions
- key features of everyday life, for example leisure activities, food and dining, water supply, sanitation and health
- influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures on life in Pompeii and Herculaneum
- how human and animal remains have contributed to a better understanding of the people who lived in these cities.
Learners will select specific content from 1.3.3–1.3.6 to be used as evidence to support historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in ancient Rome. Content may include but is not limited to:
1.3.3 – Art OR Architecture
ART
- characteristics of Roman art including use of Greek models; themes in Roman art; private art; public/state art; narrative art (telling complex stories); funerary art; colour, materials and medium; themes
- purposes of art.
ARCHITECTURE
- characteristics of Roman architecture including the use of Greek models; theatres, temples, private homes, public baths and public buildings; religious roles of temples; amphitheatre; construction, materials and technology
- purposes of architecture.
1.3.4 – The nature and range of sources: limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources
- nature and effects of the volcanic activity and eruption of 79 AD (CE) on the evidence that has survived from Pompeii and Herculaneum
- key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example, public and private buildings, mosaics, statues, villas, baths, shops, tombs, human and animal remains, official inscriptions and the writings of Pliny, Seneca and Martial
- state of preservation of the papyrus scrolls from the Villa of the Papyri
- difficulties of interpretation of evidence as a result of damage to or removal of frescos, statues, reliefs and artefacts
- how ancient writers and writing (for example Seneca, Strabo, Martial, and Pliny), inscriptions and graffiti contribute to our understanding of life in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
1.3.5 – Identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example, authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation)
- major archaeological excavations that took place at each site during the 18th, 19th and 20th Centuries, with a particular focus on the purposes of archaeological excavations (for example treasure hunting and scientific investigation) and methods of archaeologists (for example, Weber, Fiorelli, Mau, Spinazzola, Maiuri and Guzzo)
- difficulties involved in the protection and management of Pompeii and Herculaneum, including exposure to the elements, impact of tourism, arguments for and against carrying out further excavation at these sites, and concern about scientific study of human remains and display of body casts.
1.3.6 – Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies
- changing interpretations of the uses of public and private spaces, and the meaning of frescoes
- importance of the work of Australians at the sites (for example, Lazer, Mackenzie-Clark, Allison, Ellis, Jean-Paul Descoeudres and Frank Sear) in better understanding life in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum
- role of new technologies in the study of the sites, including computers, spectral and digital imaging, and laser scanning
- significance of ONE of the following: the Herculaneum Conservation Project, the Philodemus Project, the Anglo–American Project in Pompeii (Bradford University), in providing evidence about how people in Pompeii and Herculaneum lived.
DRAMA
Note: this option is only available if Greece or Rome are selected for study.
This feature will investigate the nature and purpose of drama in an ancient society, how drama works were presented, the social and religious context as well as key characteristics of drama works. This study will be investigated in historical context of the society at the time the drama works were written and performed.
Requirement: At least one major dramatic text will be studied to support historical arguments on the nature of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in an ancient society.
Studies will include reference to archaeological sites. Sites may include but are not limited to the theatres of Pompeii, for example, the Large Theatre, the Odeon (small theatre), and the Quadriporticum; the theatre of Herculaneum.
1.3.7: ROME
Content will include:
- the historical context of the civilisation in the period of study
- nature and purpose of drama in the ancient society
- physical context in which drama works were presented
- social / religious context in which drama works were presented, and to whom they were presented
- what ancient works tell us about the society in which they were written and performed
- themes of drama works, and what these tell about the ancient society
- famous playwrights, authors, and their importance, for example, Seneca, Plautus and Terence.
Content may include, but is not limited to:
- social context, entertainment and social/political comment
- characteristic of Roman theatres, adaptation of Greek models, architectural plans (including seating arrangements), their acoustic features, use of costume and masks
- use of stock characters; actors’ ‘off stage’ social status.
SECTION B – FEATURE 1.4: CHINA
The mausoleum of Qin Shi Huangdi and the city Xianyang, the Imperial capital of the Qin Dynasty. Founded during the Warring States period and expanded by Qin Shi Huangdi, the city was conceived as a microcosm of the empire; incomplete during the Qin dynasty; the city fell to Han Dynasty forces in 206 BC (BCE).
Learners study Qin Dynasty, mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di 246 to 208 BC (BCE), with particular reference to the architectural, artistic and archaeological remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.
Learners will focus on either Art OR Architecture, however, this may include the reference to arts, for example, within architectural sites.
Content will include:
1.4.1 – The geographic and historical context (overview)
- location of the city of Xianyang and the Qin burial mound and mausoleum, modelled on the Qin capital Xianyang; layout of city, including its origins, the significance of its location; built in the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi; incomplete during his reign
- nature and extent of the Qin dynasty at the time it was built.
1.4.2 – The historical period (overview)
- the Qin dynasty; the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi
- political and religious significance of the mausoleum, archaeological remains and artworks
- nature and significance of gods worshipped at the time
- nature of architecture OR the arts in the period, including the Qin and Han dynasty
- significance of the evidence at the location of the city provided by archaeological record and other artistic and archaeological sources.
Learners will select specific content from 1.4.3–1.4.6 to be used as evidence to support historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in ancient China. Content may include but is not limited to:
1.4.3 – Art OR Architecture
ART
- characteristics of Qin and Han art; materials, themes, colour; includes terracotta sculpture, Chinese painting and calligraphy, gold smithing, decorative arts, jade carving
- purposes of art.
ARCHITECTURE
- characteristics of Qin and Han dynasty architecture including materials, construction and technology; types of architecture; religious temples
- purposes of architecture.
1.4.4 – The nature and range of sources: limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources
- key archaeological and written sources for the period
- usefulness and reliability of the portrayal of kings
- difficulties of interpretation of evidence
- significance of writing, literature as sources of evidence for the period.
1.4.5 – Identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation)
- discoveries and influence of early excavations
- nature of excavations and use of scientific methods, and contributions of significant archaeologists and institutions
- effectiveness of the protection and conservation of the Qin dynasty sites.
1.4.6 – Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, including new discoveries, research and technologies
- research and recording work
- contribution of new scientific methodologies
- contribution of scholars and contemporary and international historians.
SECTION B – FEATURE 1.5: ASSYRIA
Nimrud (Arabic name for the ancient Assyrian city originally known as Kalhu)
Learners will focus on either Art OR Architecture, however, this may include the reference to arts, for example, within architectural sites.
The focus of this study will be on the archaeological remains of the city of Nimrud built during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. This includes the period of its building and the period in which Nimrud became capital of the Assyrian empire with particular reference to the remains at this site, and other relevant sources of arts and architecture of the Neo Assyrian Empire.
Content will include:
1.5.1 – The geographic and historical context (overview)
- location of the ancient city near Mosul in the north of Mesopotamia, layout of city, including its origins; the significance of its location; built in the reign of Shalmaneser II (1274–1245 BC (BCE))
- the relocation of the capital of Assyria from Assur to Nimrud in 9th Century BC (BCE)
- nature and extent of the Assyrian empire at the time it was built.
1.5.2 – The historical period (overview)
- development of the Assyrian empire from the Middle Assyrian Empire to the Neo Assyrian empire
- king Ashurnasirpal II of the Neo Assyrian Empire (883–859 BC (BCE)) made Nimrud his capital
- political and religious significance of the city and its archaeological remains
- nature and significance of gods worshipped at the time
- nature of building programs, architecture and the arts in the period
- significance of the evidence at the location of the city provided by human remains and other artistic and archaeological sources.
Learners will select specific content from 1.5.3–1.5.6 to be used as evidence to support historical arguments on political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices in ancient Assyria. Content may include but is not limited to:
1.5.3 – Art OR Architecture
ART
- characteristics of Assyrian art during the period including stone and alabaster reliefs; carved ivory and bronze; mythical creatures including winged beasts; subject matter including war, hunting and royalty
- evidence of art works at Nimrud and other relevant sites
- purposes of art.
ARCHITECTURE
- characteristics of Neo Assyrian architecture including materials, technology and construction; palaces, private homes and the significance of urban planning; palaces function as socio-economic institutions; temples; religious significance of temples and palaces
- evidence of architecture at Nimrud and reference to other relevant sites
- purposes of architecture.
1.5.4 – The nature and range of sources: limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources
- key archaeological and written sources for the period
- usefulness and reliability of the portrayal of kings; women rarely represented
- difficulties of interpretation of evidence
- significance of writing, literature as sources of evidence for the period.
1.5.5 – Identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation)
- discoveries and influence of early excavations
- nature of excavations and use of scientific methods, and contributions of significant archaeologists and institutions
- effectiveness of the protection and conservation of the Assyrian sites and the challenges faced today to prevent damage to archaeological sites and temples.
1.5.6 – Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, including new discoveries, research and technologies
- research and recording work
- contribution of new scientific methodologies
- contribution of scholars and contemporary and international historians
- current location of Assyrian art (e.g. British Museum); controversy over the return of antiquities.
SECTION B – FEATURE 2: WEAPONS AND WARFARE
In the study of this feature learners will identify evidence of emerging technologies in weaponry, strategies of warfare, significant battles and their impact on an ancient civilisation. This evidence may be used to explain:
- the nature of political structure and political strategies of an ancient society
- social hierarchies
- expansion of empires and the nature of economics of an ancient society
- cultural transmission.
The historical context of the selected ancient civilisation will provide the basis for relevant aspects of this study.
This study will focus on:
- nature and role of the military in an ancient society
- composition and role of armies and navies and changes in forms of weapons and military tactics
- life of soldiers, their training and the conditions of service
- significance of the military
- political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest
- nature of an ancient society’s military technology
- aims and use of military force – defensive and offensive – in an ancient society
- role of treaties and alliances in relations between ancient societies
- nature, scope and the reliability of the sources for weapons and warfare, and early evidence for military encounters in the ancient world
- historical narrative of major ancient military conflicts/wars, their cause and effect, and the strategies employed.
Content will include:
The Geographic and historical context (overview):
- geographical extent of the civilisation during the period (See Table 1 for period of study for each civilisation)
- overview of the history of significant battles that impacted on the historical context of the civilisation studied.
The historical period (overview):
- overview of key events and developments of the period
- significance and impact of the key events and developments of the period
- influence, initiatives and strategies of key political leaders of the period.
In the selected ancient society content may include but is not limited to:
- nature of the military in the ancient society – Who made up the armed forces? When? (e.g. standing / professional armies, conscripts, a general ‘call to arms’ in time of threat). How were social structures reflected in the various roles/ranks within the military? Who lead the armed forces? How were they selected? What was the relationship between military leadership and leadership of the society? What role(s) did the military play in political and social life?
- military technology of the ancient civilisation: offensive weapons (such as: bows/arrows; swords; spears; axes; slings; horses, elephants; chariots; ships; incendiary and hurling weapons); and defences (such as: forts and fortifications; shields; walls). The military significance of technologies such as metalworking
- cause and effects of major military conflicts, assessing the relative significance of factors contributing to specific conflicts/wars, and the effects (short and long term) of these conflicts on the society in question, and their enemy/ies
- significant treaties and alliances made between the ancient society and others – their nature (e.g. offensive, defensive or ‘stalemate’), what each side hoped to gain, what was gained/lost
- nature, scope and reliability of surviving primary sources about ancient military conflicts (e.g. the ‘history is written by the winner’ issue)
- historical narrative of major military conflicts/wars – as defined below – strategies employed by the opposing forces and their relative success, strategic issues such as supply lines and reinforcement:
The major military conflicts/wars to be studied may include, but are not limited to:
Egypt:
Egypt’s expansion into Upper and Lower Nubia in the Middle and New Kingdom periods; the expulsion of the Hyksos (late Middle Kingdom and establishment of New Kingdom); expansion into Syria, with special emphasis on the wars of 18th Dynasty’s Thutmosis I and III (including the latter’s campaigns against the Mitanni); 19th Dynasty’s Seti I’s and Ramesses II’s campaigns against the Hittities, 20th Dynasty Ramesses III’s wars against the ‘Sea Peoples’ and Libyans.
Greece:
The Persian Wars 499–449 BC (BCE); The Peloponnesian War 431–404 BC (BCE).
Rome:
The Punic Wars (with emphasis on either the First or Second War) 264–146 BC (BCE); Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars, 58–50 BC (BCE); Civil War, 49–45 BC (BCE) (the war between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great or between Octavian and Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra VII, 32–30 BC (BCE)); Augustus’ German War, 30 BC (BCE) – 14 AD (CE).
China:
Establishment of the Han dynasty in 202 BC (BCE): decisive four year war in which Liu Biang defeated Xiangyu (ruler of the Qin). The ongoing battles between the Han and the Xiongnu in the 1st century BC (BCE); battles during Cao Cao’s reign with Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty; battles of the Three Kingdom period
Assyria:
Warfare during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III including campaigns against Aramaeans, Medes and Persians, battles in Babylonia, Syria and Damascus; reign of Sargon II; Battle of Qarqar; 715 BC (BCE) Urartu campaign of 714 BC (BCE); Ashurbanipal’s campaigns in Egypt and Elam.
SECTION B – FEATURE 3: TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Technology is the use of knowledge and science to develop tools and methods which allow individuals and society to solve problems, to adapt to and control their environments. In this section learners study ancient technologies and assess the impact of technology on political and economic advancements and on society and peoples’ daily life.
In the study of this feature learners will identify the nature of the remaining evidence of technology and engineering in an ancient civilisation.
This evidence may be used to explain, for example:
- the nature of political and military strategies of an ancient society; impact on expansion of empires
- social hierarchies
- economic trade and development
- impact on religious beliefs and cultural practices.
The historical context of the selected ancient civilisation will provide the basis for relevant aspects of this study and the relevance of evidence to investigations into the core elements of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
This study will focus on:
- nature of the sources for technology and engineering including those impacting on daily life
- different groups within society (such as ruling elite, farmers, merchants, military, slaves, poor) and the impact of technology on their work and life
- technological feats in construction materials and methods related to buildings, structures and statues
- forms of technology and their impact on the household and economic life (metallurgy, pottery, surgical tools, transport, water supply and sanitation)
- use of technology in ancient times to access resources and control the environment
- impact of technological innovations on social, economic and political development and their legacy
- innovative nature of technology and engineering developments
- impact of technology on daily life.
Content will include:
The Geographic and historical context (overview):
- geographical extent of the civilisation during the period (See Table 1 for period of study for each civilisation)
- overview of the history of significant political and economic developments (for example, trade) that impacted on the historical context of the civilisation studied.
The historical period (overview):
- overview of key historical events and developments of the period
- significance and impact of the key historical events and developments of the period
- influence, initiatives and strategies of key political leaders of the period
For each ancient society a content and context outline of the technologies to be studied is given below.
Egypt – content may include, but is not limited to:
- impact on farming
- construction of royal mortuary complexes in the Old and Middle Kingdoms
- monumental stone carving. Links to Egypt’s origins: the monuments of Nabta. Tools and lifting devices – implications for workforce
- tomb construction; different styles and forms
- obelisks – quarrying, transportation and erection
- medicine
- metal working – mining and refining;
- astronomy – calendars and system of constellations, sundials.
Greece – content may include, but is not limited to:
- mathematics – achievements of Pythagoras, the Euclidian system, the Delian problem
- navigation aids, leading to trade; cartography, role of temples and lighthouses. The Astrolabe and Antikythera Mechanism (later development)
- agora and stoa – forms, functions, locations
- theatres
- medicine and surgery – dissection of bodies; practical first aid; medicines and remedies; the importance of diet; the contribution of Hippocrates
- metal working – materials, techniques and methods. Uses and possession of metal objects
- meteorology and astronomy – first systematic catalogue of the stars, seasonal crop forecasts. Significance of Aristotle and Theophrastus
- glass and ceramics – ideals of society and personal wealth reflected in art, utilitarian vs decorative function; impact on commerce and international trade.
Innovation and invention that were not realised:
- steam engine technology and mechanica. Steam engine, wind powered machinery, theories of light. Later development and significance of Hero of Alexandria (1st Century AD (CE)) and his Mechanics and Optics
- well of Eratosthenes – calculation of the circumference of the earth.
Rome – content may include, but is not limited to:
- use of concrete and lifting devices; high density housing
- new architectural developments:
- arches and domes in large public buildings; construction techniques. Triumphal arches. The Pantheon
- fora – communal heart of city
- baths; furnaces and hypocaust systems
- mobile engineering bridge
- public structures and services
- roads; aqueducts; sewer systems; bath houses; cisterns; water supply
- basilicas (used as law courts and public assemblies)
- circus - chariot and horse racing
- amphitheatres (The Colosseum)
- military fortifications – roads, bridges, trenches; pike walls, towers
- medicine and surgery
- metal working – mines; smelting and refining; use of iron
- glass and ceramics.
China – content may include, but is not limited to:
- mathematics – using written numbers c. 1500 BC (BCE); abacus; efficient method of calculating with rods by c. 500 BC; brought the method by trading on the Silk Road to Central Asia and India c. 200 BC (BCE); early Han Dynasty, Chinese scholars began to write math textbooks; used by merchants, government administrators to keep accounts, survey land
- navigation aids; lodestone compass used in navigation; impact on trade
- alchemy; fourth century BC (BCE); experiments in creating gold and also as an elixir for immortality; links with Chinese medicine
- agriculture; for example, early forms of horse harness to improve agricultural efficiency; the wheelbarrow, first century BC (BCE); the Moldboard Plow, third Century BCE. called kuan, made of malleable cast iron
- medicine and surgery – dissection of bodies; surgical procedures e.g. craniotomy; medicines and remedies; the importance of diet; pharmacopoeias of medicinal plants; herbal treatments; acupuncture; beliefs regarding autopsy (taboo); circulation of the blood, recorded in in The Yellow Emperor's Manual of Corporeal Medicine in China by the second century BC (BCE)
- metal working – cast Iron, fourth Century BC (BCE); superior construction of blast furnace walls; discovery of how to reduce the temperature at which iron melts by using phosphorus, the Chinese cast iron into ornamental and functional shapes; coal, used as a fuel; production of pots and pans with thin walls; development of annealing in the third century, ploughshares, longer swords, and even buildings were eventually made of iron techniques and methods
- seismographs: versions invented second Century AD (CE). Chang Heng (envisaged the earth as a sphere with nine continents with crisscrossing grid of latitude and longitude); noted in court records of the later Han Dynasty in 132 AD (CE)
- meteorology records from c. 2100 BC (BCE) and astronomy; examples of pottery (Beijing Ancient Observatory) dated to the Neolithic period (over 5000 years ago) that record knowledge of astronomy
- glass and ceramics – lead-barium glass used as early as Zhou Dynasty; processed to make ornaments, ritual objects or funerary objects; Warring States Period (475–221 BC (BCE)), dragonfly-eye and jade-imitation glass invented; technical exchange with foreign countries
- ideals of society and personal wealth reflected in art, glassware, jewellery, pottery, utilitarian vs decorative function; impact on commerce and international trade
- military fortifications; weapons.
Assyria – content may include, but is not limited to:
- city planning
- hydraulic projects and canals to bring water to Nineveh (Ashur-nasirpal); aqueducts and corbelled arches to cross valleys; flood control
- metalworking including copper-working, precious metals (copper, bronze and gold) used for decorative and utilitarian purposes
- waterproofing of homes using ‘mastic’; earthen fired bricks used to seal dams; roads and bridges; ummani used to level ground; stucco and enamel; courts of Nineveh paved with stone set in asphalt; use of pumps
- systems of levees and canals supported agriculture
- calendars; writing; potters’ wheels; chariots; numbering system
- glassmaking; lamp making; textile weaving
- use of iron for military purpose.
SECTION B – FEATURE 4: WOMEN AND FAMILY
In the study of this feature, learners will identify the nature of the remaining evidence relating to women and families in an ancient civilisation and, in particular, the roles and status of women.
This evidence may be used to explain, for example:
- political structures
- the nature of social structures and social hierarchies
- women’s involvement in commerce; trade practices
- religious beliefs and cultural practices.
The historical context of the selected ancient civilisation will provide the basis for relevant aspects of this study and the relevance of evidence to investigations into the core elements of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
The study of individuals that have been integrated into the study of Section B will not be selected for study in Section C, ‘The Nature of Power and Authority in an Ancient Society’, where there is significant overlap.
This study will focus on:
- different concepts of the family, family structures and family ties, and the roles and relationships within the family, including the role and status of women (domestic, political, religious and the general world of work)
- significance of the family in social and political life
- social status of women in that society; impact of differing social groups on status
- legal status of women in that society
- beliefs and practices that influenced family life, including: the purpose of marriage and/or betrothal, marriage rituals, divorce, concubines, infanticide, gender, leisure activities
- concepts of childhood and childhood experiences, including: education, rites of passage, age of maturity
- ways in which women’s daily roles differed to those of men
- relationships between women’s roles and status, and attitudes towards women held in that ancient society
- nature of the sources for the family, and early depictions of the family (men, women and children) in the historical record.
Content will include:
The Geographic and historical context (overview):
- geographical extent of the civilisation during the period (See Table 1 for period of study for each civilisation)
- the history of significant political, social and economic developments that impacted on the historical context of the civilisation studied.
The historical period (overview):
- key historical events and developments of the period
- significance and impact of the key historical events and developments of the period that impacted on the lives of women and families in society
- influence, initiatives and strategies of key political leaders of the period that impacted on social structure.
For each ancient society a content and context outline is given below.
Egypt – content may include, but is not limited to:
- families in ancient Egypt; children and education
- role of women as Mistress of the House
- roles of elite women; the institution of the harem
- roles of non-elite women. Domestic servants, wet nurses and nannies
- legal status compared to men. Women’s rights in relation to business deals, inheritance; owning and renting property; legal and economic rights and freedoms
- women and religion; women in the after-life
- sources of evidence. Many primary sources are from male elite funerary contexts, male dominated religious monuments, and ancient texts written largely by men.
Greece – content may include, but is not limited to:
- families in ancient Greece; children and education
- citizen women, courtesans, metics. (considered to be any resident aliens, including freed slaves), slaves
- women and marriage
- women’s legal rights compared to men; women and business; women and religion
- women’s rights to own and sell her property; the guardian’s role
- Spartan women: the importance of physical health linked to a woman’s ability to produce strong, healthy Spartan boys
- sources of evidence.
Rome – content may include, but is not limited to:
- families in ancient Rome; paterfamilias (the father), wife (and mother), children; other family members, slaves and servants; marriage customs; children
- children and education
- role of materfamilias; legal status vs custom; position in the household
- role of female slaves in the household and on estates; types of domestic service; sexual services
- domestic and economic roles of women with lower socio-economic status
- legal status of women in Roman society
- women in essential roles on the edge of society – Vestal Virgins and courtesans
- scope, bias and reliability of sources of evidence. Limited scope: little evidence written by women.
China – content may include, but is not limited to:
- families in ancient China; beliefs and practices that influenced family life, including: the purpose of marriage and/or betrothal, marriage rituals, divorce, concubines, attitudes to infanticide, gender, leisure activities
- children and education
- roles of elite women in Chinese society
- roles of non-elite women
- women as citizens; women in marriage; women’s rights
- education for women; courtesans highly skilled in literature, music and dancing
- legal status of women compared to men; legal and economic rights and freedoms
- sources of evidence. Many primary sources predominantly present women as consorts; ancient texts written by men.
Assyria – content may include, but is not limited to:
- families in ancient Assyria; family members, slaves and servants; marriage customs; children
- children and education
- nature of the inequality of rights between men and women in ancient Mesopotamia; varied in the later Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires
- changing nature of women’s rights; early periods women free to go to marketplace, own property, borrow money, attend to legal matters and engage in business
- education available to elite women (prior to Neo Assyrian empire); mainly priestesses and royal family; some administrative authority
- hierarchical structure of society; evidenced great distinctions in roles and rights
- status varied in city states
- nature of women’s rights and roles; cultural expectations of women changed in Neo-Assyrian empire; introduction of public veiling of women; disallowed education; rights diminished – decline in women’s rights correlates to the rise of Assyrian monotheism
- legal status; marriage laws, laws protecting the rights of women.
SECTION B – FEATURE 5: BELIEFS, RITUALS AND FUNERARY PRACTICES
In the study of this feature learners will identify the nature of the remaining evidence relating to religious beliefs and rituals of an ancient society.
This evidence may be used to explain, for example:
- political structures
- the nature of social structures and social hierarchies
- economic structures
- religious beliefs and cultural practices.
The historical context of the selected ancient civilisation will provide the basis for relevant aspects of this study and the relevance of evidence to investigations into the core elements of political, social, economic and cultural structures and practices.
Studies may include the contribution of myths and legends to beliefs and worldview.
Religion and mythology overlap, however, both investigate the supernatural and sacred in ancient societies. Mythology draws on specific explanations for phenomena and contributes in varying significance to the religion of ancient societies. Religion is a broader concept that incorporates theology, morality, world view, ritual and the distinctive expression of religious beliefs.
This study will focus on:
- dominant religious beliefs and rituals
- nature, influence and significance of the deities worshiped
- influence and significance of beliefs and rituals
- influence and significance of myths and legends to religious beliefs in an ancient society
- sacred spaces and practices associated with religious worship; similarities and differences between private and state religious worship
- attitudes to and beliefs about death, and the concept of an afterlife
- funerary beliefs and practices (burial sites, forms of burial, ceremonies, rites and rituals) and their relationship to religious beliefs and social status.
Content will include:
The geographic and historical context (overview):
- geographical extent of the civilisation during the period (See Table 1 for period of study for each civilisation)
- the history of significant political, social and economic developments (for example, trade; expansion; conflicts; internal and external threats) that impacted on the historical context of the civilisation studied.
The historical period (overview):
- key historical events and developments of the period
- significance and impact of the key historical events and developments of the period that impacted on beliefs, rituals and funerary practices
- influence, initiatives and strategies of key political leaders of the period.
Content may include but is not limited to:
- major deities worshiped; deities associated with death and the afterlife
- nature of the relationship between human and divine; beliefs concerning the nature of humanity and immortality; beliefs about role of the dead in the world of the living
- sacred spaces in which deities were worshiped practices associated with worship (e.g. rituals, offerings, prayers, role of music, festivals)
- similarities and differences between private and state religious worship
- beliefs concerning the nature of the human afterlife, who could expect an afterlife, and who was excluded (what was it expected to be like? For whom?)
- funerary beliefs and practices; how the body was prepared for burial; funerary practices and rites; goods and items buried with the dead (their meaning and purpose)
- nature and scope of available primary and secondary sources about funerary beliefs and practices in an ancient society
- the nature of myths and legends in an ancient society; narrative of some significant myths and legends.
Egypt – content may include, but is not limited to:
- polytheism; deities linked with natural forces; key themes of fertility, rebirth, death and resurrection; dominant gods linked with social classes
- regional nature of gods and goddesses; significant gods such as Ra, Amun, Isis, Osiris, Anubis, Horus, worshipped widely
- pharaoh seen as an intermediary between the gods and people
- beliefs about the role of the dead; funerary practices including mummifying, the practice of burying with goods needed in the afterlife including human sacrifice; gender difference in grave goods; mummy masks in ‘cartonnage’; statuary, reliefs and decoration; use of hieroglyphs
- pyramids; tombs of royalty; significance of New Kingdom rock cut tombs; beliefs and practices for the other social groups
- significant myths such as the story of Ra (Re).
Greece – content may include, but is not limited to:
- origins of Greek religion in Mycenaean Bronze Age Greece
- the nature of public religion and cult practices; cult of Amun; private household and ancestor cults
- no single cosmogony; hierarchical polytheistic religion; theomachy (battles between gods); gods associated with certain cities; belief in an underworld
- extensive mythology based on explanations of interactions of gods and humans and mythical creatures (satyrs, cyclops, dryads)
- historical events used as basis for epic poems such as the Iliad, attributed to Homer
- significant religious rituals celebrating gods, games celebrating Zeus, Pan-Hellenic games including Olympic Games
- the concept of ‘hubris’ in morality; myths such as Prometheus – Creation of Man; interpretations of philosophies, e.g. Stoicism and Platonism.
Rome – content may include, but is not limited to:
- religion traced to the founders of Rome, mos maiorum (ancestral customs); in early Rome, Forum Boarium, (religious centre); ancient festivals such as the Lupercalia; legendary founding on Rome attributed to Romulus and Remus; adoption of Greek gods and the nature of pantheism
- kings communicate directly with the gods; The Imperial Cult of Rome from the time of Augustus; emperors and family sanctioned with divine rights by the Roman State; other religions existed concurrently
- significance of the correct practice of prayer and ritual; public rituals; state supported ‘vestals’; women’s role in prayer and ritual and ceremony
- adoption of religious practice from other cultures resulting in participation in private family rites and participation in public religion
- senate restriction of private rituals (e.g. the Bacchanals in 186 BC; mono-theism not compulsory, many deities adopted; monotheistic Judaism led to the first Jewish–Roman War
- Christianity official religion by c. 4th AD (CE).
China – content may include, but is not limited to:
Qin
- Qin dynasty: dominance of Legalist philosophy; tenets of the Legalist philosophy
- books, writings and historical texts contradicting Legalism destroyed
- Confucianism targeted – in 213 B.C.; capital offense to discuss Confucian beliefs
- regional worship of spirits and gods connected to natural forces
- rites; the feng or fang and shan sacrifices, practiced by the emperor to achieve immortality
- Confucianism, and Daoism emerging.
Han
- Ancestor worship; costly burials; ritual sacrifices to the deities, spirits and ancestors; the nature of private religious beliefs
- Taoism main Han dynasty religion; ceremonies for worship and religious purposes
- establishment of Buddhist foundations; major religion around 1st Century AD (CE)
- introduction of Confucianism; ideological underpinnings of Confucianism
- Emperors seen as ruling under the mandate of Heaven; provide spiritual blessing to the people; direct involvement in religious and spiritual worship and ritual
- state religion based on the Five Elements (fire, water, earth, wood, and metal)
- sites of worship
- legends and myths recorded in texts such as the Classic of the Mountain and Seas a geographical and cultural account of China as well as Chinese mythology; current version finalised during the Han Dynasty
- documentation of Chinese myths through imperial historical documents and philosophical canons such as Book of Rites, Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Documents, and Lüshi Chunqiu.
Assyria: content may include, but is not limited to:
- Ashur the patron deity of the city of Assur during Neo-Assyrian Empire
- Neo-Assyrian Empire centered around the Assyrian king; kingship considered a divine mandate; king considered the deity of the entire empire
- kings were the servant of the god Ashur; the king’s absolute authority of the king
- unity of vision of a supreme deity (Ashur) intended to unify the regions of the empire
- mythology of religious cosmology; Epic of Creation (c. 1200 BC (BCE))
- polytheistic religion, also henotheistic (single god)
- gods associated with origins: Enki (from Eridu); Ashur (from Assur); Ishtar (from Arbela)
- syncretism of gods between Akkadian and Sumerian peoples
- anthropomorphic representation of gods and goddesses
- deities ranked in primary importance
- record of deities, myths and legends, e.g. Epic of Gilgamesh
- public devotions; ziggurats; private devotions and prayer.
SECTION C – THE NATURE OF POWER AND AUTHORITY IN AN ANCIENT SOCIETY
In Section C, learners investigate leadership and the nature of power and authority in an ancient society. Learners will study either Egypt OR Greece OR Rome OR China OR Assyria.
The importance of human agency is a central consideration in many disciplines within studies of society: to what extent outstanding individuals were the product of their society and to what extent their society was shaped by the individual’s actions and initiatives. This Unit also investigates the impact of power and authority on the social, political, military, religious, cultural and economic features of the society and the reasons for continuity and change.
Learners may select a civilisation that has not been studied in Sections A and B.
Learners will focus on ONE individual in ONE civilisation.
Individuals may, for example, be identified as leaders from government, royalty or the military, or may be statesmen, philosophers or women that made significant contribution to society. Studies will assess the effectiveness and outcomes of prominence or leadership in an ancient society in an historical context.
The study of ONE individual in the selected topic will include the background and historical context for the period, events relevant to the individual’s life and historical outcomes that were as a result of the actions or achievements of the individual. Other individuals may be referred to in the context of the study of the selected individual.
Relationship of Section to Learning Outcomes
Specific Learning Outcomes about knowledge of, and understanding about an ancient civilisation related to Section C.
Learners will be able to:
- describe the impact of human agency on historical narrative of an ancient society.
Learners will also develop skills they need to meet the Learning Outcomes related to historical inquiry and communication.
This section of the course has a focus on:
- the detailed study of an individual from an ancient society who had a significant impact on their society
- the nature of power, authority and leadership in an ancient civilisation
- the historical context in which the individual from an ancient society lived
- understanding of the importance of human agency, as demonstrated by the possible motivations and actions of individuals.
Requirements: A learner will negotiate with the teacher to select one topic (individual) from the list below. The historical inquiry will include the topics listed below.
The study of individuals in Section A and B will not be selected for study in Section C. Contextual reference to an individual in Section A or B will not, however, preclude the study of that individual in Section C where there is no significant overlap of content.
The study of an individual in an ancient society will include the historical context in which they lived. Learners will reference key social, political, economic, religious and cultural contexts both before and after the life of the individual where there is relevant historical connection.
In the selected ancient society learners will study the:
- historical context in which the individual lived
- nature and scope of power that leaders exercised, and their roles in the society
- ways in which government was organised, and leaders selected, and ways in which leaders’ power typically ended
- threats to the individual’s leadership (or prominence)
- an examination of the possible motivations of the individual
- how the individual’s social context (the values, beliefs and understandings of their society) influenced or shaped the individual
- ways in which the individual’s actions shaped their society
- ways in which leaders were impacted by internal and external threats to government
- the nature or degree of the individual’s impact – how significant was it? (e.g. revolutionary, short-term, established systems on which later changes depended)
- nature of representations of leaders in an ancient society.
Historical inquiry topics: learners will locate and assess a variety of primary and secondary sources on the following topics related to the selected individual in order to develop and support their research and understandings.
Their background and rise to prominence, including:
- family background and status
- key events in their rise to prominence
- significant influences on early development.
The career of the individual, including:
- change of role, position, status over time
- possible motivations for actions
- methods used to achieve aims
- relationships with groups and other individuals
- significant events in the career of the individual
- manner and impact of death.
The impact and legacy of the individual, including:
- assessment of their life and career
- the influence of the individual on their time
- their longer-term impact and legacy.
Changing perspectives and interpretations of the individual, including:
- depictions of the individual during their lifetime
- judgements of the individual by other individuals and groups during their lifetime
- interpretations of the individual after their death (e.g. in writings, images, films).
Learners will study ONE of the following individuals:
Egypt (Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom 18th and 19th Dynasties):
- Neb-hetep-re Mentuhotep II
- Hatshepsut
- Akhenaten
- Horemheb
- Ramesses II
Greece:
- Solon
- Cleomenes I
- Peisistratus
- Themistocles
- Thucydides
Rome:
- Marcus Tullius Cicero
- Sulla
- Gaius Julius Caesar
- Livia
- Augustus.
China (later Han and the Three Kingdoms):
- Liu Bei
- Zhuge Liang
- Cao Cao.
Assyria (Neo-Assyrian Empire to the sack of Nineveh):
- Tiglath–Pileser
- Sargon II
- Ashurbanipal.
SECTION C – TOPIC 1:
EGYPT: MIDDLE KINGDOM (11th DYNASTY) TO NEW KINGDOM EGYPT (18th DYNASTY AND 19th DYNASTY)
The study of ONE individual in this topic will include the background and historical context for the period and the nature and power and authority:
- the historical and geographical context; a brief overview of Old and Middle Kingdom developments; the significance of the Second Intermediate Period; Upper and Lower Egypt and the territorial boundaries of Egypt
- the social and political structure (role and status of pharaoh/royalty, nobility, scribes, artisans, agricultural workers; the nature and impact of Hyksos rule); religion (significance of the pharaoh as god-king, Son of Re, Lord of the Two Lands, Upholder of Maat, the role and importance of Amun); the economy and civil administration (importance of the Nile, agriculture and other natural resources; role and status of the vizier); and the bureaucracy (methods of taxation, commerce and trade).
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- the role of 17th Dynasty rulers, including queens; establishment of the 18th Dynasty
- the development and importance of the military in the expulsion of the Hyksos and in the expansion and maintenance of the Egyptian empire; the iconography of the ‘warrior pharaoh’, and the nature of Egyptian imperialism
- the nature of the empire and its impact on economic development, including the significance of booty, tribute and trade
- the changing nature of Egypt’s relations (for example warfare and diplomacy) with other powers, in particular the Mitanni and Hittites
- the role of 17th Dynasty rulers, including queens, in the expulsion of the Hyksos and the establishment of the 18th Dynasty
- the consolidation of the 18th Dynasty in relation to the role and growing status of the Amun cult and Egyptian queens who took the title ‘God’s Wife of Amun’
- the religious, political and economic importance of pharaonic building programs, including the cult temples of Luxor and Karnak; the royal mortuary temples (western Thebes); the tomb builders’ village, Deir el Medina; the significance of Theban festivals
- the religious, political and economic importance of pharaonic building programs, including the cult temples of Luxor and Karnak; the royal mortuary temples (western Thebes); the tomb builders’ village, Deir el Medina; the significance of Theban festivals
- conquest and expansion in Nubia and Syria-Palestine, the iconography of the ‘warrior pharaoh’, and the nature of Egyptian imperialism
- the nature and impact of the Amarna revolution and the restoration of Amun during the latter part of the 18th Dynasty under Tutankhamun and Horemheb.
SECTION C – TOPIC 2:
GREECE c. 600 – 400 BC (BCE)
The study of ONE individual in this topic will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority:
- the historical and geographical context will include: the emergence from the ‘Dark Ages’, the influence of geography on Greek political and economic development; the concept of ‘polis’ (origins of key city-states: Athens, Thebes, Megara, Corinth and Sparta); Sparta’s Dorian origins (nature and influence of Homeric Bronze Age tradition on Sparta’s early development), and Athens’ Ionian origins; the ‘displacement’ of the Ionians and settlement of Ionia
- the nature of power and authority at the beginning of the period, including the social structure (role and status of the family ‘oikos’, tribe, nobles, farmers, peasants, craftsmen); Greek religion (the nature of Hesiod’s cosmogony; Olympian gods); the emergence of the Athenian polis (hereditary kingship, the role of clans and phratriae); the emergence of the Spartan polis and role of kings; the development of the Athenian polis (5th Century BC (BCE)) , including the transition.
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
c. 600–490 BC (BCE)
- from monarchic to oligarchic rule; the role of polemarch, basileus, archons, thesmothetae, Areopagus, Ecclesia, and legal structures, for example Draco’s codification of laws replaced by Solon in 594 BC (BCE)
- the political, economic and cultural influence of Ionia on Athenian development
- Spartan expansion into Laconia and the impact of the Messenian Wars and the Lycurgan reforms on the development of the Spartan polis, including the structure and function of the dual kingship, ephors, Gerousia and Assembly
- causes of colonisation, including the importance of agriculture and land ownership, the custom of primogeniture
- the political, social and economic impact of colonisation and trade on Greek poleis, including the role of the trireme and the emergence of a merchant class
- the impact of colonisation on relations with other powers, including trade and cultural contact with Near-Eastern neighbours; the importance of the Phoenician alphabet
- the causes of tyranny, the nature and impact of tyrants, for example Pheidon (Argos), Cleisthenes (Sicyon), Cypselus and Periander (Corinth), as well as their success in maintaining power
- the emergence of Pan-Hellenic sites for example Dodona and Delphi; the importance of omens and oracles for example Zeus and Apollo at Delphi; the religious and political significance of the Pan-Hellenic Games, including Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games
- the nature and significance of technological innovation in pottery and monumental architecture.
Athens 490–400 BC (BCE)
Topics will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority:
- background for the period, including the chronological and geographical context of Athens in 490 BC (BCE), Cleisthene’s democracy, the Spartan and Persian attempts to interfere in Athenian domestic affairs prior to 490 BC (BCE), the Athenian response, and the Ionian Revolt
- the nature of power and authority in Athens in 490 BC (BCE), including key political concepts (demos, polis, oligarchy, democracy, ostracism); key social groups (Solon’s pentacosiomedimni, hippeis, zeugitae, thetes, slaves, metics and women); and Athenian government, including Cleisthene’s reforms.
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- the causes, course and consequences of conflict with Persia in 490 BC (BCE) with particular reference to the Ionian Revolt, Marathon, role of Xanthippus and Miltiades
- the development of Athens’ domestic politics for example the use of ostracisms in the 480s, the ascendency of Themistocles, the construction of the fleet, and the enhancement of the position of strategoi
- the Persian Wars 481–478 BC (BCE), including the Battle of Salamis, the formation of the Hellenic League, Spartan hegemony and the role of Leonidas, Themistocles, Pausanias, and the significance of the increased prestige of Athens
- the reasons for the formation of the Delian League, including the aims, structure and naval superiority of Athens
- initial campaigns under Cimon to 461 BC (BCE) and their significance for Athenian power internally and externally, including Sparta’s response to the growth of Athenian power
- the rise in thetic power in Athens and the reasons for Ephialtes’ reforms to the political institutions of the Areopagus, Boule, Ecclesia and Heliaea
- Athens’ changing foreign policy in 461 BC (BCE), its alliances with Megara and Thessaly, the First Peloponnesian War, the Athenian Land Empire, and Cimon’s possible recall
- the significance of Athens’ leadership of the Delian League, the transformation of the League to an empire, and the methods of control used by Athens to 445 BC (BCE)
- the beginnings of Periclean Athens (c. 495–429 BC (BCE), including democratic reforms and the building program.
SECTION C – TOPIC 3:
ROME 133 BC (BCE) – 63 AD (CE)
The study of ONE individual in this topic will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority for the period.
- The historical and geographical context will include: the location of Rome and the geographical extent of Roman territory, and neighbouring kingdoms and societies
- The nature of power and authority in Rome in 133 BC (BCE), including the social structures of Roman society (the nobility, equestrians, slaves, freedmen, socii, patron-client relations and family structures; the distinction between citizens and non-citizens; the political structures (consuls, senate, tribunate, assemblies and magistrates of the people, and provincial administration and the use of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum); the economy, (agriculture, the land tenure system, trade, slavery, provinces and taxation; Pompey’s Eastern Settlement); the military organization (client armies); and religious practices (omens, oracles, religious festivals, triumphs and games.)
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- 64 BC (BCE) – 14 AD the senate, assemblies of the people, the magistrates of the people, the provincial administration); the economy (agriculture, trade, slavery, provinces, taxation and); military organisation (client armies); religious practices (omens, oracles, religious festivals, triumphs and games.)
The Change and Development of Power and authority:
- reasons for the reforms of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, the methods used by the Gracchi, and the political, economic and social impact of the reforms
- the tribunate and growing tensions between the optimates and populares between 133–63 BC (BCE)
- the treasons for Marius’ first consulship, his command against Jurgurtha, the significance of his subsequent consulships and extraordinary commands against the Teutones and Cimbri
- the military reforms of Marius, the growth of client armies and their impact on Roman politics and society to 63BC (BCE)
- the reasons for Sulla’s March on Rome, the Civil War, Sulla’s dictatorship and the effectiveness of the so-called ‘Sullan Restoration’ on the powers of the tribunate and Senate
- the reasons for, and nature of, the extraordinary commands of Pompey up to 63 BC (BCE) and their impact on the Roman Republic, including the commands against Lepidus and Sertorius, the lex Gabinia and lex Manilia
- the significance of Cicero’s consulship, the Catiline Conspiracy and the Concordia Ordinum
- the role and impact of violence in Roman politics, including the use of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum, and Civil War.
Rome 63 BC (BCE) – 14 AD (CE)
Topics will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority:
- the nature of power and authority in Rome in 63 BC, including the social structure of Roman society (the nobility, equestrians, slaves, freedmen, patron-client relations, and family structures, including ‘pater familias’); political structures (the senate, assemblies of the people, the magistrates of the people, the provincial administration, and the use of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum); the economy (agriculture, trade, slavery, provinces, taxation and Pompey’s Eastern Settlement); military organisation (client armies); religious practices (omens, oracles, religious festivals, triumphs and games)
- the reasons for the formation of the ‘First Triumvirate’ of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey (59–53 BC (BCE), including tensions between the optimates and populares.
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- Caesar’s first consulship, his legislative program, and his acquisition of the Gallic Command
- the reasons for the breakdown of the ‘First Triumvirate’ and the key events of the Civil War, including Caesar versus Pompey and the optimates; battles of Pharsalus, Thapsus and Munda
- Caesar’s dictatorship, including his constitutional position, reform program and the reasons for his assassination
- the reasons for the formation of the ‘Second Triumvirate’ of Antony, Lepidus and Octavian
- the nature of the tensions and rivalry between Octavian and Mark Anthony, the breakdown of the ‘Second Triumvirate’, Cleopatra and the significance of the Battle of Actium
- the purpose and nature of the 1st and 2nd Settlements of Augustus, subsequent developments, and their impact in consolidating his authority
- the reasons for the reforms of Augustus and their political, social, military, cultural and economic impact on the Roman Republic
- the role and impact of violence in Roman politics, including the use of client armies and civil war
- the nature and objectives of Augustus’ foreign policy.
SECTION C – TOPIC 4:
CHINA: LATE HAN AND THE THREE KINGDOMS 180–280 AD (CE)
The study of ONE individual in this topic will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority for the period.
- Background for the period including the historical and geographical context in AD 180, the geographical extent of the Chinese state, the location of the capital Luoyang, including the significance of the plagues
- The nature of power and authority in China in the period, including the social structure of Late Han society (emperor, nobility, eunuchs, commoners, the significance of imperial marriage); political structures (emperor, ministers, the court, kings, provincial administration); the economy (agriculture, coinage, taxation of land, labour, property); popular religion (Daoism); the nature of military forces (limits of conscription standing armies, local levies, non-Chinese auxiliaries, private retainers, development of warlord armies.)
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- Zhang Jue and The Way of Great Peace campaign, the Yellow Turban Rebellion of AD 184 and its suppression; the north-western rebellion in the Liang province: the consequent social and economic disruption
- the reasons for the power struggle between the palace eunuchs, Confucianists and imperial relatives by marriage; AD 189: the death of Emperor Ling; the assassination of He Jin; the massacre of the Eunuchs and the seizure of power of warlord Dong Zhou
- the rise of military leaders and local warlords, the puppet reign of Emperor Xian, and the downfall of the Han dynasty
- Cao Cao’s military success at Guandu (AD 200) and his consolidation of power in northern China, the alliance of Sun Quan and Liu Bei, and the Battle of Red Cliffs (AD (CE) 208)
- the abdication of Emperor Xian and the establishment of Cao Pi as Emperor of Wei in AD (CE) 220, Liu Bei as Emperor of Shu-Han and Sun Quan as Emperor of Wu
- the rivalry between Wu and Shu, Liu Bei’s victory at Ding Jun mountain and the capture of Hanzhong (AD (CE) 219), seizure of Jin province on the middle Yangtse by Wu (AD (CE) 219); Zhuge Liang’s Southern Expedition and the re-establishment of an alliance between the Wu and Shu kingdoms (AD (CE) 223)
- stability and prosperity in the state of Wu under Sun Quan, including conquest and colonisation in south China, and economic development including trade with South-East Asia
- the power of the Sima clan in Wei, the overthrow of Cao Shuang and the abdication of Cao Huan to Sima Yan in AD (CE) 264, the proclamation of the Jin Dynasty in northern China
- the decline of Shu after the death of Zhuge Liang, culminating in the invasion by Wei and the surrender of Liu Shan in AD (CE) 263
- the succession problems of the state of Wu and the surrender of of Sun Hao to Jin in AD (CE) 280
- the extent of Chinese territorial expansion by AD (CE) 280, the external threats, the evidence for Roman–Chinese relations.
SECTION C – TOPIC 5:
ASSYRIA : NEO ASSYRIAN EMPIRE 911–612 BC (BCE)
The study of ONE individual in this topic will include the background and historical context and the nature of power and authority for the period.
- Background for the period including the historical and geographical context in the Neo-Assyrian period; the geographical extent of the Assyrian empire and the nature of expansion; significant leaders of the period; the location of the capital and key cities in the empire; the attitude towards people of conquered states and empires
- The nature of power and authority in Assyria in the period, including the social structure of society; political structures; royalty; the economy; expansion of the empire; religion; the nature of military forces and technological developments in weapons.
Learners will study topics relevant to the individual’s life which may include:
- the geographical vastness of the Neo Assyrian empire: great expansion; ruthless leadership; technologically and doctrinally advanced military; first civilisation to make use of mass-produced iron weaponry
- the purpose of inter-marriage as a strategy of loyalty and to unite kingdoms; secured enemies as an ally, for example, Babylon
- the nature of warfare; for example, reign of Ashurnasirpal II (884–959 BC (BCE)); developments in siege warfare; breaching methods and multi-storied wooden towers on wheels
- impact of a supreme deity to achieve unity throughout the regions; all worshipping the one god; cohesion of regions
- advances in medicine; drew upon the knowledge of conquered peoples who were assimilated into Assyria; systematic cataloguing of plants and animals; schools; women no longer able to gain an education or hold positions of authority nor able to participate in public religious worship; decline in women’s rights correlated to the rise of Assyrian monotheism
- reign of Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC (BCE)) expansion of empire
- the reasons for the social and political reforms in the Neo-Assyrian empire and their political, social, military, cultural and economic impact on the Assyrian empire
- the role and impact of violence in Assyria; civil war
- the nature and objectives of Assyrian assimilation policy
- the nature of reforms to the military and restructured bureaucracy of government; during reign of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC (BCE)) reasserted central control over the empire; reconquered the Mediterranean seaboard; subjugated Babylon; the Aramaic alphabet, imported into the Assyrian government by Tiglath-Pileser III from the conquered region of Syria; thousands of years of history and culture preserved for future generations
- the nature and scope of the written record: administrative, legal, historical and historiographic documents, treaties, literature, poetry, prose, letters, essays, instructional texts
- wealth, expansion and cohesion of the later Neo Assyrian empire; large record of military exploits in cuneiform blocks reigns of Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC (BCE)); Sargon II (722–705 BC (BCE)); Sennacherib (705–681 BC (BCE)
- reasons for the sacking of Babylon; Sennacherib’s reign, temples of the city looted; seen as sacrilege; assassination of Sennacherib by sons to placate gods; succeeded by Esarhaddon
- nature of developments in the late Neo Assyrian empire; Esarhaddon (681–669 BC (BCE)); empire flourished; successful military campaigns, stable government, advances in medicine, literacy, mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and the arts
- reign of Ashurbanipal; ruled efficiently; stable government; built great library in Nineveh; recorded the history of the Assyrians on hard clay tablet books
- nature of the gradual decline during reign of Ashurbanipal’s successors; regions overtaxed; difficulties in defending the borders; revolt of vassal states
- reasons for the downfall of the Neo Assyrian empire; sack and burning of Nineveh and Ashur in 612BC (BCE); Babylonians, Persians, Medes and Scythians; cities of Assyrian empire lost.
ANC315115 paper 2016.pdf